Kautilya: Architect of Ancient Indian Politics

Kautilya, the ancient Indian political thinker, was a multifaceted personality whose renowned work, Arthashastra, continues to be studied across disciplines such as political science, international relations, diplomacy, security studies, economics, management, and public administration. Recognized as one of India’s greatest ministers and politicians, Kautilya’s insights on politics and governance remain relevant in modern India. However, his contributions are widely regarded as underappreciated both within India and internationally.

The science of statecraft had already been evolving in India prior to Kautilya’s time, and he himself did not claim to be its pioneer. Instead, he consolidated existing knowledge, drawing from prominent works and theories of earlier scholars, while offering his own perspectives on politics, economics, and diplomacy. Before Kautilya, there were at least four distinct schools and thirteen individual teachers of Arthashastra. However, it is likely that Kautilya’s comprehensive and authoritative treatise rendered these earlier works obsolete, leading to their eventual disappearance.

Given its enduring relevance, it is imperative to study Kautilya’s Arthashastra to understand its resilience over the centuries and its contemporary significance for India.

Kautilya and Arthasashtra

Kautilya, also known as Chanakya, derived his name from his father, Rishi (Sage) Chanak, who was a Brahmin. He was also called Vishnugupta, reflecting his devotion to Lord Vishnu. The name “Kautilya” comes from his kutil gotra, meaning “shrewd” or “cunning.” Living at the turn of the fourth to third century BCE, Kautilya was a near contemporary of Aristotle and Alexander the Great. His birthplace remains a topic of debate, with sources suggesting locations such as Takshashila, the Gola district in South India, or Patliputra in Magadha.

Kautilya played a pivotal role in the establishment of the Maurya Empire under Chandragupta Maurya (321–297 BCE), the first pan-Indian state spanning much of the Indian subcontinent. As Chandragupta’s mentor and later his Prime Minister, Kautilya’s strategic guidance helped overthrow the Nanda dynasty and consolidate the empire.

His seminal work, Arthashastra, comprises 15 books, 180 divisions, 150 chapters, and approximately 6,000 verses (shlokas). The content is organized as follows:

Book 1: Details about the king, his ministers, and key officials.
Book 2: Responsibilities of state executives and the state’s involvement in activities like agriculture and mining.
Book 3: Law and administration.
Book 4: Crime suppression.
Book 5: Miscellaneous topics, including salaries of officials.
Book 6: Elements of statecraft and foreign policy.
Book 7: Further insights on foreign policy.
Book 8: Calamities affecting state functioning.
Book 9: War preparations.
Book 10: Techniques and modes of warfare.
Book 11: Handling oligarchies governed by groups instead of single rulers.
Book 12: Strategies for weaker kings to overcome stronger ones.
Book 13: Methods for conquering enemy forts.
Book 14: Occult practices and secret techniques.
Book 15: Logical methods and the underlying methodology of the Arthashastra.

The Arthashastra was thought to be lost until 1904, when Dr. R. Shamasastry discovered a 17th-century manuscript on palm leaves in Tanjore. He published the text in 1909 and its translation in 1915. Scholars like Subrata K. Mitra and Michael Liebig have argued for a continuous oral and written transmission of the Arthashastra, emphasizing its enduring influence on South Asian political thought.

Max Weber, a foundational thinker in modern social sciences, was among the first Western scholars to recognize Kautilya’s significance in works like Politics as a Vocation and his studies on the sociology of religion. Indian scholars such as Dr. R. P. Kangle and L. N. Rangarajan have also contributed to the study of Arthashastra, with Kangle producing a comprehensive three-volume edition (1960–1965) and Rangarajan offering a simplified and rearranged version in 1992.

Before delving into the Arthashastra, it is essential to understand the concept of the four Purusharthas—the goals of human life: dharma (duty), artha (wealth), kama (desire), and moksha (liberation). In pre-Kautilyan times, dharma, promoted through religious texts like the Dharmashastras, was considered superior to the other three. Kautilya’s Arthashastra marked a shift, elevating the pursuit of artha as an independent goal, with the other three objectives subordinated to it. This separation of politics from religion was a precursor to similar developments in 16th-century Europe, where the authority of the state began to challenge religious supremacy.

While the Dharmashastras focus on moral, social, and religious aspects, the Arthashastra is predominantly political and economic in nature. It is closely aligned with Nitishastra, emphasizing discipline, punishment, and governance. Kautilya himself declared in the opening lines of the Arthashastra that his work is a treatise on the science of politics, underscoring its pragmatic and policy-oriented approach.

Kautilya’s Views on the State

Kautilya’s perspective on the state bears similarities to the later-developed social contract theory regarding the origin of the state. He argued for the elimination of Matsya Nyaya, the “law of nature,” where the strong dominate and exploit the weak—a concept likened to a state of anarchy. Matsya Nyaya, meaning “the big fish devours the smaller fish,” underscores the need for governance to maintain order. Similar ideas were later expressed by Thomas Hobbes.

According to Kautilya, people value security and peace, which led them to choose Manu as their king under the kingship system. In this agreement, people consented to pay taxes—one-sixth of their food grains and one-tenth of other goods, including gold—in exchange for the king’s guarantee of their safety and well-being. The king, in turn, was duty-bound to protect his subjects and maintain their welfare. To ensure societal order and stability, the king wielded the power of danda (punishment).

Before Kautilya, the theory of state in ancient India emphasized upholding the laws of Varnashram—social laws derived from tradition and customs. The state’s role was largely minimalist, intervening only when these laws were violated. Kautilya, however, challenged this convention in his Arthashastra. He advocated for a proactive state capable of creating its own laws, asserting that in cases of conflict between Dharamnayay (state law) and Dharmashastra (religious law), the former would take precedence.

The Arthashastra served as a comprehensive manual of statecraft and governance, particularly for a vijigishu—a king aspiring to conquer and unify the Indian subcontinent. Such a ruler was later described in Buddhist texts as a chakravarti (universal monarch).

Kautilya outlined the structure of the state through his Saptanga theory, or the theory of seven elements of the state (prakritis), presented at the beginning of Book 6 of the Arthashastra. These seven elements are:

Swami (the ruler)
Amatya (the ministers and officials)
Janapada (the territory and population)
Durga (fortifications and infrastructure)
Kosa (the treasury)
Danda (the military and law enforcement)
Mitra (alliances and foreign relations).

The Arthashastra’s structure follows the sequence of these elements. Book 1 focuses on the ruler (Swami), while Books 2–5 cover Amatya, Janapada, Durga, and Kosa. Books 6–14 delve into Danda and Mitra.

Although Kautilya did not originate the Saptanga theory—earlier texts also referenced it—he expanded on the concept, likening the state to a living organism where its elements function as interdependent organs. Just as organs cannot survive outside the body, individuals lose their essence when separated from the state, and the state itself suffers if its elements are compromised.

Kautilya’s organic theory of the state parallels Aristotle’s views, emphasizing the symbiotic relationship between the state and its people. He stated, “There cannot be a country without people, and there is no kingdom without a country.”

Saptanga Theory of State

The seven elements of state as decribed by Kautilya as explained below.

1. Swami or the King

In Kautilya’s framework, the ruler is likened to the head of a human body, indispensable for the proper functioning of the state. Kautilya rejected the idea of divine kingship, viewing it instead as a human institution. An ideal king, in his view, must possess exceptional qualities of leadership, intellect, energy, and personal attributes.

Qualities of an Ideal King

Leadership Qualities: The king should be born into a noble family and exhibit truthfulness, prowess, intellect, righteousness, discipline, and enthusiasm. He must be stronger than neighboring kings and supported by highly competent ministers.
Intellectual Attributes: A king should be eager to learn, open to advice, and able to discern truth from falsehood. His intellect should enable him to grasp and retain truthful views while rejecting unfounded claims.
Personal Attributes: Eloquence, kindness, sharp intellect, and a willingness to accept guidance are essential traits. Additionally, the king must avoid passion, anger, greed, obstinacy, fickleness, and backbiting.

Kautilya emphasized the king’s pivotal role as the cornerstone of the state. He regarded the king as the independent variable, with the other six elements of the state (Saptanga) being dependent on his leadership and competence.

The King’s Authority and Responsibilities

Kautilya envisioned the state as an absolute monarchy but not as a despotic rule. While the king wielded significant authority, it was bounded by the principles of justice and the welfare of his subjects. Punishment (danda) was to be applied judiciously, as arbitrary or unjust use of power could lead to resistance or even rebellion.

A benevolent monarch, according to Kautilya, gains popular support by prioritizing the welfare of his people, ensuring political stability. Kautilya stated that a just king who protects his subjects and administers justice as per the law attains divine merit, whereas one who inflicts unjust punishment and neglects his duties faces condemnation.

Duties of the King

Kautilya outlined several key responsibilities for the king:

Ensuring Welfare:
- Attend to the needs of vulnerable groups, including pregnant women, orphans, newborns, the destitute, and the elderly.
- Recognize that the king’s happiness lies in the welfare of his subjects.
Maintaining Dharma:
- Uphold the prescribed duties of all individuals in society.
Providing Protection:
- Safeguard subjects from both internal and external threats.
- Protect the state from eight types of calamities: famine, fire, floods and drought, epidemics, infestations (rats and locusts), venomous creatures (snakes and aquatic dangers), wild animals (e.g., tigers and crocodiles), and malevolent supernatural forces.
Enforcing Law and Order:
- Maintain peace and stability within the state through the fair application of laws.
Promoting Education:
- Ensure universal and free education for all citizens based on the Vedic system.
Exercising Self-Control:
- Exhibit Atma vrata (self-discipline) by renouncing six internal enemies: kama (lust), krodha (anger), lobha (greed), mana (vanity), mada (haughtiness), and harsha (excessive joy).

Kautilya’s vision of kingship is best described as a system of benevolent monarchy, where the ruler’s ultimate duty is to serve the welfare of his people, ensuring their security and prosperity while maintaining justice and moral governance.

2. Amatya or the Minister

In Kautilya’s framework, the Amatya (minister) represents the “eyes” of the state, playing a crucial role in governance and administration.

Qualities of an Ideal Minister

Kautilya emphasized that a minister of the highest rank should possess the following attributes:

Lineage and Loyalty: He should be born into a noble family, be a native of the state, and exhibit unwavering loyalty to the king.
Skills and Training: He must be well-trained in various arts and disciplines, farsighted, and capable of enduring challenges.
Personal Attributes: The minister should demonstrate boldness, bravery, intelligence, and energy, making him a valuable advisor and administrator.

Role of the Council of Ministers

The council of ministers served as a cornerstone for stable and systematic administration. Ministers were appointed based on their qualifications:

High-Grade Ministries: Reserved for individuals with exemplary qualities and skills.
Low-Grade Ministries: Assigned to those with fewer qualifications.

Kautilya did not specify a fixed number of ministers, allowing the size of the council to adapt to the state’s needs.

Key Positions in the Council of Ministers

The council was structured with three prominent roles, alongside the king, forming the supreme decision-making body:

Mantri (Prime Minister):
- The king’s closest political advisor, responsible for guiding policy and strategy.
Commander-in-Chief:
- Oversees military planning and conducts foreign policy.
Crown Prince:
- Alternates between political and military responsibilities, preparing for eventual succession.

Other notable positions included:

Minister of Finance: Manages the state’s treasury and economic affairs.
Chief Justice: Ensures the rule of law and oversees judicial matters.
Head of Public Administration: Manages the state’s bureaucratic machinery.

Kautilya’s flexible approach to the composition of the council of ministers ensured that governance could be tailored to meet the unique requirements of the state, while the king retained ultimate authority over his advisors.

3. Janpada or the People

In Kautilya’s vision, Janpada forms the “legs” of the state, encompassing both its territory and population.

Characteristics of an Ideal Janpada

Prosperous People: The population should be industrious and content, contributing to the strength of the state.
Resource-Rich Territory: The land should be fertile and abundant in natural resources such as mines, forests, and water bodies.

Demographic and Economic Base

The foundation of the Kautilyan state lies in its rural population, which plays a pivotal role in its demographic and economic stability:

Agriculture and Crafts: The majority of people reside in the countryside, primarily engaged in farming and craftsmanship.
Shudra Farmers: Small-scale farmers, often from the shudra caste, own their land or work as tenants.
- Kautilya’s land reclamation policy encouraged the allotment of land to shudra peasants for cultivation, thereby increasing agricultural output and the state’s economic strength.

Significance of Forests

Forests held both economic and strategic importance in Kautilya’s framework:

Economic Role: They provided essential resources like timber, charcoal, dyes, medicines, and bamboo.
Military Role: Forests were habitats for elephants, crucial for both civilian and military purposes. Kautilya emphasized the importance of maintaining well-trained war elephants.

Rural vs. Urban Population

Kautilya regarded the rural population as physically and mentally more robust compared to urban dwellers. He advocated for a disciplined lifestyle in rural areas and disapproved of urban-style entertainment, such as alcohol consumption and gambling, for the countryside.

By ensuring a prosperous and resource-rich Janpada, Kautilya laid the foundation for a strong and self-sustaining state, capable of supporting both its people and its strategic needs.

4. Durga or the Fort

Durga represents the “arms” of the state, symbolizing its defensive strength and ability to secure its treasury and army.

Significance of Fortification

Kautilya emphasized the importance of strong fortifications to safeguard the state against external aggression. According to him:

Forts should be strategically located on the frontiers to defend every quarter of the country.
A total of four forts should be constructed in locations naturally suited for defense.

Types of Forts

Kautilya identified several types of forts, each suited to specific terrains and defensive needs:

Audak Fort: Surrounded by water bodies, offering strong defense against invaders.
Parvat Fort: Built amidst high mountains, these are the most challenging for enemies to capture and are crucial for defending against external attacks.
Dhanvan Fort: Located in deserts, utilizing the harsh terrain as a natural barrier.
Van Fort: Situated in dense forests, leveraging the natural environment for camouflage and protection.

Strategic Placement of the Capital

Kautilya advised that the capital city should be located at the center of the kingdom for better administration and defense.
The capital should be divided into four districts, with each district designated for one caste, ensuring social organization and order.

By focusing on fortification and strategic placement, Kautilya’s Durga not only ensured military security but also strengthened the state’s infrastructure and administrative efficiency.

5. Kosha or Treasury

Kosha represents the “mouth” of the state, symbolizing its capacity to sustain itself and its functions through wealth and resources.

Acquisition of Wealth

Kautilya emphasized that the state’s wealth should be acquired lawfully through inheritance or the ruler’s own efforts. This wealth, primarily in the form of gold, silver, and gems, forms the backbone of the state’s economy.

Role of the Treasury

The treasury should hold sufficient reserves to enable the state to endure prolonged periods of calamity or economic stagnation without generating income.
Located within the fortified capital, the treasury finances essential state functions, including the army, royal court, and administrative machinery.

Taxation System

Kautilya designed a pragmatic taxation system to ensure a steady flow of revenue:

Primary Tax: One-sixth of the agricultural output was collected as tax, making it the main source of income.
Special Levies: Additional taxes were imposed on activities such as alcohol production, gambling, road tolls, jewelry sales, and commercial sexual services.

Caution Against Over-Taxation

Kautilya warned against excessive taxation, recognizing its potential to:

Lower economic productivity.
Impoverish the population.
Create discontent, leading to political instability.

By maintaining a balance between revenue generation and public welfare, Kosha ensured the financial stability necessary for the state’s growth, security, and prosperity.

6. Danda or Sena: The Coercive Power of the State (Armed Forces, Secret Service, and Police)

The Sena (armed forces) represents the brain of the state, serving as its strategic and operational command to ensure security and order.

Qualities of Soldiers

Kautilya emphasized that soldiers should possess:

Physical strength and endurance.
Obedience and discipline.
Readiness for long expeditions and skill in handling various weapons.
Experience in battle.
Loyalty to the king, sharing in his prosperity and adversity.
Soldiers were also expected to keep their families content to avoid distractions from their duties.

Types of Armies

Kautilya identified six types of armies, each with its own strengths and limitations:

Clan Army: Composed of hereditary soldiers, mainly kshatriyas. These soldiers are loyal, skilled in war strategies, and given the highest importance by Kautilya.
Hired Soldiers (Militia Army): Composed of paid recruits, though mobilization can take longer compared to a standing army.
Corporate Army: Raised by various organizations or corporations.
Allied Army: Formed with the assistance of friendly states.
Prisoner Army: Comprised of enemy soldiers captured during wars.
Tribal Army: Made up of soldiers recruited from tribal communities.

Components of the Coercive Power

The coercive power of the state includes:

Army: The backbone of the state’s defense, divided into four units: infantry, cavalry, chariots, and war elephants. The commander-in-chief (senapati) was part of the king’s innermost circle and oversaw strategic planning and military operations.
Secret Service: Spies were critical for monitoring internal and external affairs, ensuring loyalty among ministers, and gathering intelligence about public sentiment and other kingdoms.
Police: Responsible for maintaining law and order within the state.

Military Strategy and Equipment

Kautilya envisioned a well-developed defense industry, with state-run manufacturers producing military equipment like chariots, siege engines, and tents.
Though he mentioned little about naval warfare, his focus was primarily on land-based operations.

Forms of Warfare

Kautilya outlined four types of warfare:

Mantra-yuddha: Diplomatic warfare used by a weaker king against a stronger adversary.
Prakash-yuddha: Conventional warfare conducted according to established rules.
Kuta-yuddha: Irregular warfare involving ambushes and raids.
Tusnim-yuddha: Covert operations such as sabotage and targeted assassinations.

Guidelines for War

Prolonged wars were to be avoided.
Offensive strategies were advised only when the opponent was significantly weaker.
Tusnim-yuddha was preferred for its reliance on intelligence, foresight, and psychological tactics.

Spy System

Kautilya emphasized an elaborate network of spies to safeguard the state. Spies could assume various disguises, including:

Kapatik: Disciple.
Udasthita: Recluse.
Griha Paitik: Householder.
Vaidehak: Merchant.
Tapas: Ascetic.
Satri: Classmate or colleague.
Tikshana: Firebrand.
Rasada: Poison specialist.
Bhikshuki: Mendicant woman.

Through a combination of military might, strategic planning, covert operations, and intelligence gathering, Kautilya’s Danda ensured the stability and security of the state.

7. Mitra or Ally/Friend

Mitra represents the ears of the state, signifying its ability to listen, gather intelligence, and forge beneficial relationships.

Characteristics of an Ideal Ally

According to Kautilya, an ideal ally possesses the following traits:

A long-standing friendship with the ruler’s family.
Steadfastness and power in offering support.
Amenability to guidance and control.
Shared common interests with the state.
Quick mobilization of resources, particularly military forces.
Trustworthiness, avoiding deceit or betrayal.

Prioritizing Internal Strength

Kautilya emphasized that a king should first focus on strengthening the six internal elements of the state (Swami, Amatya, Janpada, Durga, Kosha, and Danda). This approach aligns with the concept of internal balancing in modern international relations, where a state prioritizes self-reliance by developing its internal resources and capabilities.

When to Form Alliances

If a state’s resources are underdeveloped compared to others, Kautilya recommended forming external alliances. This strategy provides the state with the time and security needed for internal development. However, alliances should be temporary and reassessed if:

The state has achieved sufficient strength to stand independently.
The alliance begins to hinder the state’s internal growth and progress.

Ultimate Form of Alliance

In Kautilya’s view, the best ally is one that surrenders its sovereignty and becomes a vassal state. By doing so, the external ally transforms into an internal element of the state, offering unreserved support and integration into the state’s power structure.

Kautilya’s insights reflect a pragmatic and strategic approach to diplomacy, prioritizing the state’s long-term strength and stability over short-term gains.

Objectives and Functions of Kautilya’s State

Kautilya envisioned a state that not only ensured the security of its people but also actively worked for their welfare. He integrated various institutions to achieve these objectives, emphasizing both material and spiritual aspects of governance. For Kautilya, the state was indispensable to the king, as it provided the foundation for his rule and authority. The state, he argued, should transcend materialistic pursuits and strive to foster an inclusive society free from divisions of color, creed, and caste.

To fulfill these comprehensive objectives, Kautilya outlined a broad scope for the state’s functions, emphasizing the following key areas:

1. Agricultural Function

Importance: Agriculture was regarded as the backbone of the state’s economy.
State’s Role: The state should ensure the availability of cultivable land, encourage plantation, and manage transportation systems to facilitate agricultural activities.

2. Administrative Function

Objective: Efficient governance relies on essential appointments.
Responsibility: The king must oversee the appointment of capable officials to maintain good administration.

3. Military Function

Focus: The security of the state is paramount.
Requirements: A powerful, integrated military is essential to protect the state from external threats and maintain internal stability.

4. Judicial Function

Purpose: Administering justice and maintaining law and order.
Implementation: Punishment of wrongdoers and ensuring fairness in judicial proceedings.

5. Economic Function

Foundation: The state’s strength lies in a robust treasury and thriving trade.
Measures: Effective management of financial resources and ensuring fair trade practices in markets.

6. Diplomatic Function

Scope: Managing external relations and diplomacy.
Execution: Appoint ambassadors based on the behavior and intentions of neighboring states to safeguard the state’s interests.

7. Industrial Function

Development: Promote industries to bolster the economy.
Management: Ensure proper selection of capital and labor for industrial growth.

8. Luxury Management

Balance: Luxury, though included as a state function, must be regulated.
Control: Appoint employees to manage luxury-related activities while ensuring they do not disrupt other essential streams of governance.

9. Business Function

Trade Oversight: Ensure that trades and transactions remain under state control.
Market Regulation: Monitor market operations and maintain accurate measurements for goods sold.

10. Spiritual Function

Objective: Promote spiritual growth alongside material prosperity.
Implementation: Appoint Brahmins to manage the state in line with the principles of Dharmashastra. Protect religious values and foster spiritual development among the populace.

11. Social Welfare Function

Goal: Prosperity combined with social welfare.
Measures:
- Addressing famine and ensuring food security.
- Providing employment opportunities to vulnerable groups such as widows and the disabled.
- Encouraging community welfare to build a prosperous nation.

A Welfare and Secular State

Kautilya envisioned the state as both secular and welfare-oriented, addressing the needs of all segments of society. He emphasized three critical domains:

Religion: Undertaking activities that ensure moral and spiritual growth.
Economy: Promoting agriculture, trade, and industries to foster prosperity.
Social Equity: Implementing measures to support and uplift the underprivileged.

Kautilya believed that the state’s ultimate goal was to create a harmonious and prosperous society. As he remarked, “A king who can prevent famine and provide for his people in times of scarcity is a true king.” This vision aligns with Robson’s observation that the idea of a welfare state is as ancient as human history itself.

Kautilya’s Mandala Theory

One of Kautilya’s most significant contributions to political philosophy is the Mandala Theory, which outlines principles of interstate relations and foreign policy during his time. This theory reflects Kautilya’s pragmatic and strategic worldview, emphasizing the inevitability of conflict between neighboring states. He advocated for imperial expansion through decisive and, if necessary, harsh measures, treating diplomacy as an extension of warfare.

The core idea of the Mandala Theory is encapsulated in Kautilya’s assertion:
“Your neighbor is your natural enemy, and the neighbor’s neighbor is your friend.”

The term “Mandala,” derived from the Sanskrit word for “circle,” symbolizes a strategic framework of alliances and enmities based on geographical proximity. According to Kautilya, a state’s immediate neighbor is its most likely adversary, while the neighbor’s neighbor is a potential ally. This pattern continues outward, alternating between friends and foes, creating a concentric structure of relationships.

Key Principles of the Mandala Theory:

Immediate Proximity: The state directly adjacent to one’s own is the natural enemy.
Distant Allies: The states located further away, beyond the immediate neighbors, are likely allies.
Neutral and Mediating States: Neutral states, particularly those stronger than the primary adversaries, play a vital role as mediators or balancing powers.

For simplification, one can visualize a linear arrangement of states or concentric circles:

States numbered 1, 3, 5, 7, etc., are allies.
States numbered 2, 4, 6, 8, etc., are adversaries.

Composition of the Mandala

The Mandala comprises 12 types of kings or states:

Vijigishu: The would-be conqueror, positioned at the center.
Ari: The enemy state adjacent to the Vijigishu.
Mitra: The ally beyond the enemy state.
Ari Mitra: The ally of the enemy state.
Mitra Mitra: The distant ally of one’s ally.
Ari Mitra Mitra: The distant ally of the enemy’s ally.
Parashanigraha: The rearward enemy of the Vijigishu.
Rearward Mitra: The ally behind the Vijigishu.
Enemy’s Rearward Ally: The ally of the rearward enemy.
Rearward Ally’s Ally: The friend of one’s rearward ally.
Udasina: A neutral king, often powerful and geographically distant.
Madhyama: A buffer state situated between the Vijigishu and his adversary.

Strategic Dynamics

Kautilya envisioned the Mandala as a dynamic system, urging rulers to:

Expand their central position by weakening adversaries.
Forge alliances with distant states to create a balance of power.
Treat neutral states with respect, leveraging their strategic importance.

The Six-Fold Policy

Kautilya advocated six strategic approaches for dealing with neighbors:

Co-existence (Sandhi): Maintaining peace with certain states.
Neutrality (Asana): Avoiding involvement in conflicts.
Alliance (Sama): Collaborating with friendly states.
Double Policy (Dvaidhibhava): Simultaneously maintaining alliances and conflicts.
March (Yana): Preparing for military action.
War (Vigraha): Engaging in open conflict when necessary.

Five Tactics for Strategy Execution

Kautilya proposed five methods for achieving foreign policy objectives:

Conciliation: Building amicable relations.
Gifts and Bribery: Influencing adversaries or allies through material incentives.
Dissension: Creating divisions within enemy ranks.
Deceit: Employing covert strategies to weaken foes.
Force: Resorting to open warfare when other methods fail.

Realpolitik and Adaptability

Kautilya emphasized pragmatism, advising rulers to abandon alliances or treaties if they proved disadvantageous. He regarded the Vijigishu as a central player in maintaining a balance of power by asserting dominance over neighboring states.

The Mandala Theory underscores Kautilya’s belief in the perpetual struggle for power and survival among states. It provides a detailed framework for diplomacy, alliance-building, and warfare, reflecting a sophisticated understanding of geopolitical realities. This theory remains a cornerstone of classical Indian political thought, offering timeless insights into strategic statecraft.

Enemies According to Kautilya

Kautilya’s perspective on enemies was deeply rooted in pragmatism and strategic foresight. He recognized that potential enemies could often present themselves as allies or neutral parties. However, in the long run, such states could turn hostile, especially when one’s ultimate goal was world conquest—a vision that necessitated the eventual domination of all other territories, many of which would resist subjugation.

Potential Enemies

Kautilya maintained that even states with which one had friendly relations or no direct conflicts should be regarded as potential enemies. This is because their interests might eventually clash with one’s own, particularly in the pursuit of territorial expansion. His political philosophy assumed that conquest and consolidation of power inevitably led to conflict with most neighboring states.

Strategy for Powerful Enemies

When confronted with an enemy too strong to confront directly, Kautilya advised a strategic approach:

Feign Friendship: Maintain cordial relations while awaiting an opportunity to weaken them.
Proactive Weakening: Do not passively wait for the enemy to falter. Instead, take active measures to erode their strength through covert tactics, alliances with their adversaries, or fostering internal dissent.

Kautilya dismissed the notion of moral obligations in interstate relations, asserting that states act solely in their self-interest. Ethical considerations held little significance in the realm of power and strategy.

Types of Enemies

Kautilya categorized enemies based on their circumstances:

Strong Enemies: Neighboring rulers with significant power and resources.
Vulnerable Enemies: Those facing internal or external calamities, making them susceptible to attack.
Enemies with Weak Support: States lacking strong allies or internal cohesion, making them easy targets for extermination.
Enemies with Strong Support: Such adversaries were to be harassed or weakened gradually, rather than confronted head-on.

Policy Toward Conquered Enemies

Kautilya emphasized a clear distinction in how to deal with leaders versus the general population of a conquered state:

Exterminate Leaders: Removing the ruling elite was necessary to dismantle the enemy’s power structure.
Treat Citizens and Soldiers Well: A benevolent approach toward the conquered populace was essential. This policy aimed to win their loyalty and support, reducing the likelihood of rebellion and increasing the chances of recruiting them into one’s own forces.

Kautilya believed that despotic behavior alienated the conquered people, jeopardizing the stability of the newly acquired territory. Conversely, fairness and benevolence fostered goodwill and cooperation, strengthening the conqueror’s hold on the region.

Kautilya’s approach to enemies reflects a blend of ruthlessness and pragmatism. His strategies were designed to ensure the king’s long-term dominance by systematically identifying, weakening, and ultimately subjugating potential threats while cultivating the loyalty of the conquered populace. These principles continue to resonate as timeless lessons in realpolitik and statecraft.

Kautilya’s Theory of Kingship

According to Kautilya, the king is the most vital organ of the state, its first and foremost component. Without a king, the state descends into corruption and disorder, becoming harmful to its people. He argued that a king’s primary purpose is to protect his subjects and promote their welfare. Kautilya emphasized the importance of a ruler who embodies the principles of religion (Dharma), economy (Artha), and duty (Karma). He stated, “The miseries of the people lie in the hands of the king. A king should not be selfish; he must think of his people.”

Kautilya viewed the king as an extraordinary individual who combines the virtues of a saint with the pragmatism of a ruler. He considered the king the central point of the state’s Saptanga (seven limbs) theory, wherein all state organs revolve around him. The effectiveness of these organs, Kautilya noted, depends on how the king uses them.

Qualifications and Qualities of a King

Kautilya listed specific qualities that a king must possess:

Physical, Mental, and Intellectual Perfection: The king should be fit and capable in all aspects.
Punctuality: Adherence to time and discipline is crucial for governance.
Self-Control: The king must have mastery over his senses and desires.
Fulfillment of Objectives: The ruler must strive to achieve religious, economic, and social objectives for the welfare of his people.

Privileges of the King

Kautilya granted certain privileges to the king to ensure his focus on governance:

The king is the supreme authority in the state.
No taxes can be imposed on the king.
He owns all unclaimed wealth and hidden treasures.
The king cannot be summoned as a witness in court.

However, Kautilya stressed that these privileges must not be misused for personal luxury. Social and religious traditions were imposed on the king to prevent indulgence in excesses.

Daily Routine of the King

Kautilya meticulously outlined the king’s routine, dividing it into daytime and nighttime activities:

Daytime Routine

Investigating security organizations to protect the people.
Attending to personal matters.
Resolving disputes among the populace.
Reviewing the state treasury and issuing directives.
Consulting with ministers and intelligence officers.
Engaging in recreation and study.
Inspecting the army and its weaponry.
Discussing strategies with the commander-in-chief.

Nighttime Routine

Receiving intelligence reports and issuing instructions.
Attending to personal matters.
Engaging in recreational activities.
Relaxing and sleeping.
Preparing the schedule for the next day.
Consulting with intellectuals.
Performing religious rituals.

This routine reflects Kautilya’s emphasis on balancing religion, economy, and governance in a king’s duties.

Security of the King

Kautilya placed great importance on the security of the king, as the stability of the state depended on it. He recommended the following measures:

The king should always be accompanied by armed guards.
Security personnel must be stationed both inside and outside the palace.
Food served to the king must be thoroughly inspected.
The king should avoid interacting with suspicious individuals.
Crowded places should be avoided.
While supervising the army, the king should be cautious and use horseback riding.
Special care must be taken during hunting expeditions.

Succession

Kautilya stressed the importance of merit and ability in succession. He outlined the following guidelines for determining the heir to the throne:

The elder son of the king.
A capable prince if the elder son lacks the necessary virtues.
A meritorious prince, even if he is not the king’s biological son.
The able son of the king’s daughter.
The king’s daughter, in the absence of a qualified male heir.

Although Kautilya preferred a monarchy, he insisted that the king’s successor must be competent. He warned against appointing an incapable individual, even if he were the king’s son.

Kautilya’s philosophy of kingship underscores the pivotal role of the king in ensuring the welfare and security of the state. He envisioned a ruler who balances power with responsibility, combining virtues, wisdom, and administrative skills to govern effectively. For Kautilya, kingship is not merely a privilege but a duty to uphold the principles of Dharma, strengthen the state, and serve the people.

Position of the King: Absolute Monarchy or Welfare State?

The analysis of Kautilya’s Arthashastra presents an apparent contradiction regarding the nature of kingship he envisioned. Did he advocate for absolute monarchy, or was his vision aligned with a welfare state? While certain elements of his doctrine suggest an absolute or despotic monarch, other aspects highlight his concern for the welfare of citizens.

Indicators of Absolutism

Kautilya’s portrayal of the king includes elements that align with absolutism:

Supreme Authority: The king is the ultimate power, with the right to create, interpret, and enforce laws.
Neglect of Citizens’ Rights: There is little emphasis on the rights of citizens in the Arthashastra.
Overemphasis on Royal Security: The king’s security is given greater importance than the common man’s welfare.
Dynastic Succession: Preference is given to hereditary succession.
Unclear Restrictions on Privileges: The king enjoys certain privileges, but the checks imposed by Shastras and customs are not clearly defined.
Centralized Responsibility: The administration and its members are accountable solely to the king.
Control in Warfare: The king holds unrestricted power in matters of war, further reflecting his dominance.

These characteristics suggest an absolute monarch.

Indicators of a Welfare State

Despite the elements of absolutism, Kautilya did not ignore the king’s duty toward the welfare of his people. He emphasized that the king’s happiness depends on the well-being of his subjects:

“A king should think about his people; if they are sad, he too will be unhappy. He can only feel content and relaxed when his citizens live peacefully.”
The king is responsible for supporting widows, the disabled, and others in need.
Protection from natural calamities and the welfare of the populace were among the king’s primary responsibilities.

Kautilya envisioned a welfare-oriented monarchy with several checks to curb the king’s absolute power.

Checks on Absolute Monarchy

Kautilya implemented various mechanisms to ensure that the king’s powers were not absolute:

Religious Checks
- The king’s actions were constrained by religious principles.
- Kautilya’s approach was secular but pragmatic, using religious sentiments and institutions to serve the state’s goals.
- M.V. Krishna Rao noted, “Kautilya’s attitude to religion was secular and not apathetic… he is prepared to use religious institutions for noble ends.”
Checks on Appointments
- The king could not arbitrarily select his ministers. According to the Arthashastra, only virtuous and competent individuals were eligible for important positions.
Subordination to Religion
- The king had to obey religious norms and respect saints and spiritual leaders. He was to treat them as a student respects a teacher, or a servant respects a master.
Alignment of Objectives
- The king’s objectives were aligned with the welfare of the state and its people. Equal consideration of the citizens’ needs diminished the scope for absolute rule.
Merit-Based Succession
- While hereditary succession was preferred, the successor had to demonstrate merit. The king was expected to possess physical, mental, and intellectual virtues, ensuring that the ruler was capable and not despotic.
Moral Checks
- The king had to overcome six moral obstacles: lust, anger, greed, pride, envy, and excessive happiness. Self-control was essential to governance.
Spiritual Considerations
- Kautilya recognized the importance of spiritual growth and suggested that the king’s actions should have positive implications both in this world and beyond.
People’s Rights
- Kautilya acknowledged that in moments of anger, people might rebel against the king, indicating an implicit recognition of public power to check tyranny.
Training the Successor
- To prevent tyranny, the king’s successor was trained in various disciplines, including Dharmashastra, political science, and the Vedas, ensuring responsible governance.
Consultation with Ministers
- The king was expected to make decisions after consulting his ministers, indicating a collaborative approach to governance.
Limited Royal Powers
- While the king had the authority to create laws and enforce punishments, these actions were to adhere to religious rules and customs, ensuring checks on his authority.

While Kautilya’s Arthashastra grants extensive powers to the king, these are balanced by various checks rooted in religion, morality, and practical governance. The king’s primary responsibility is the welfare of his people, and his powers are structured to fulfill this goal without veering into despotism. Kautilya envisioned a monarchy where the king’s throne symbolized pride and responsibility, not unchecked dominance. His vision aligns more with a welfare state than an absolute monarchy.

Amatyas or Council of Ministers

Kautilya’s Arthashastra stands as a monumental treatise on statecraft, offering a systematic framework for governance. Central to its administrative structure is the concept of Saptanga (seven limbs of the state), where the council of ministers (Amatyas) holds significant importance, second only to the king. The sixth section of the Arthashastra, titled “Mungleyoni,” elaborates on the role and composition of this council.

Kautilya emphasized that the council of ministers was indispensable to the effective functioning of the king, the state, the administration, and the welfare of the people. He advised the king not to initiate any major undertaking without the consensus of the council.

Composition of the Council of Ministers

The council was to be composed of individuals selected carefully, keeping in mind the state’s needs, prevailing circumstances, and administrative requirements. Key points include:

Size of the Council: Kautilya recommended a council comprising 12 to 20 ministers.
Critical Discussions: For crucial matters, 3-4 ministers should be involved in discussions. However, no decision should be made with fewer than two ministers participating.
Qualifications: Ministers were chosen based on their expertise, competence, and ability to contribute to state governance.

Remuneration of Ministers

Kautilya recognized the importance of fair compensation for ministers to maintain integrity and discourage corruption.

Salary Scale: Ministers were to be paid based on their rank and capabilities.
Annual Pay: The maximum salary for a minister was set at 4,800 pana annually, reflecting the highest level of merit and responsibility.
Purpose of Proper Compensation: Adequate salaries ensured that ministers could lead dignified lives without resorting to unethical practices.

Significance of the Council

Kautilya regarded the council of ministers as vital to state administration. Its functions included:

Providing counsel to the king on critical decisions.
Ensuring effective governance through collective deliberation.
Supporting the king in maintaining the welfare and security of the state.

By emphasizing the importance of the Amatyas, Kautilya highlighted the value of collaborative governance and the need for a skilled and ethical administrative apparatus. This system fostered stability, efficiency, and accountability within the state.

Qualifications of Amatyas (Ministers)

Kautilya’s Arthashastra outlines detailed qualifications for ministers (Amatyas), emphasizing their essential role in governance. Drawing from the insights of saints, educationists, and other thinkers, Kautilya highlights the qualities necessary for effective statecraft.

While thinkers like Bhardwaj prioritized the king’s old colleagues and Parashar emphasized loyalty, Kautilya combined multiple perspectives. He believed that a minister should embody intelligence, skill, courage, loyalty, patience, fearlessness, and piety. Beni Prasad summarized Kautilya’s expectations as follows:

“An excellent intellectual grounding, a blameless private life, sound judgment, a high sense of duty, and a certain amount of popularity are deemed essential qualifications.”

Key Qualities of a Minister

Kautilya outlined the following attributes as vital for ministers:

Autocratic: Capable of decisive leadership.
Socially Adept: Skilled in social interaction and diplomacy.
Intelligent and Skilled: Highly knowledgeable and proficient in their duties.
Proficient in Language and Literature: Articulate and well-versed in communication.
Strong Memory: Ability to retain and recall information effectively.
Managerial Skills: Competent in organizing and managing resources.
Patient and Patriotic: Dedicated to the state’s well-being.
Courageous and Courteous: Brave yet respectful in demeanor.
Egoless and Static: Humble and steadfast.
Charismatic and Aesthetic: Possessing an appealing and refined presence.
Popular and Unbiased: Admired by the public and impartial in decisions.
Pious and Non-Greedy: Religious, ethical, and free from corruption.

Duties and Responsibilities

Religious Responsibilities: Ministers, alongside saints, must lead ethical lives and prevent the king from being misled.
State Security: They should prioritize the state’s security and ensure strict enforcement of protective measures.
Unity and Secrecy: Ministers must maintain harmony and discretion, particularly regarding sensitive matters like the king’s routine and state policies.
Successor’s Security: Beyond safeguarding the king and state, ministers are responsible for the security of the royal successor and other key individuals.

Ministerial Categories

Based on their adherence to the outlined qualities, ministers were categorized into three tiers:

First Tier: Possessing all qualities.
Second Tier: Possessing three-fourths of the qualities.
Third Tier: Possessing half of the qualities.

Functioning of the Council of Ministers

Authority: The king retains the authority to convene meetings.
Leadership: A prime minister should preside over meetings.
Decision-Making: Decisions are to be made by majority consensus.
Confidentiality: The council’s deliberations must remain confidential, ensuring that no secrets are leaked. Meetings should be held in secure locations to minimize risks.

Checks and Balances

Kautilya advised the king to appoint detectives to monitor the activities of ministers and ensure their integrity. This system of vigilance safeguarded the state against corruption and ensured ministers fulfilled their duties effectively.

Kautilya’s emphasis on a structured, meritocratic council underscores the importance of a strong and ethical administrative apparatus for the prosperity and security of the state.

Functions of the Council of Ministers

Kautilya’s Arthashastra assigns significant responsibilities to the Council of Ministers (Amatyas), highlighting their pivotal role in governance and administration. Their key functions include:

Advisory Role: Ministers are required to provide well-informed advice during meetings, utilizing their intelligence and expertise to guide the king in decision-making.
Security of the King: Ensuring the safety of the king is a critical duty of the council. Ministers are tasked with organizing and managing security measures to protect the monarch.
Administrative Responsibilities: Ministers play a vital role in the administration by implementing decisions made by the king and the council. They bridge the gap between policy formulation and execution.

Kautilya on War

Kautilya, often regarded as a pragmatic and realistic thinker, believed in the philosophy of preparation and conquest:
“Prepare for war, and plan to conquer.”

Principles of War and Realpolitik

Kautilya’s approach to international relations was rooted in the idea that nations act to maximize their power and self-interest, with moral principles playing a minimal role. His perspective included the following key ideas:

Self-Interest as the Foundation of Alliances:
Alliances are not built on goodwill or moral obligations but on mutual self-interest. As he stated, “An ally looks to the securing of his interests in the event of calamities or the growth of the enemy’s power.” This implies that alliances are inherently temporary, lasting only as long as they serve the interests of both parties.
Profit-Driven Decisions:
Whether a state chooses war or peace depends entirely on its advantage. Kautilya asserted, “War and peace are considered solely from the point of view of profit.” Strength and the ability to protect self-interest are what sustain alliances and influence even enemies to become allies.
The Reality of International Conflict:
Kautilya believed that times of peace are precarious and can quickly devolve into war. Nations inherently operate through “dissension and force,” with conflict being a natural aspect of international relations.

War Strategies and Tactics

Kautilya emphasized the importance of strategic planning in warfare. He believed that mastering the science of politics and war could lead even a small kingdom to conquer the world.

Types of War:
Kautilya categorized war into three types:
- Open War: Traditional warfare conducted openly.
- Concealed War: Similar to guerrilla warfare, involving hidden attacks and ambushes.
- Silent War: A unique form of conflict where both kingdoms outwardly maintain peace, but covert operations such as espionage, propaganda, and assassinations are carried out to weaken the opponent.
Secrecy and Success:
Secrecy was paramount in Kautilya’s warfare strategies. He advocated for maintaining absolute secrecy in planning and executing actions to achieve repeated success.

War and Governance

Kautilya did not see conquest as inherently unjust. For him, the ideal ruler was one who:

Fulfilled his duties according to law.
Administered justice impartially, applying the law equally to all, including his son and his enemy.
Protected and served his people, ensuring social justice and a moral order.

Such a king, after conquering the world, would govern it in alignment with varna (social classes) and ashrama (stages of life), upholding justice and societal harmony.

Foreign Policy and Smaller States

Kautilya’s foreign policy primarily addressed the challenges of small, warring states, which were common in India before the Mauryan Empire. He recognized that peaceful empires might not endure indefinitely and that conflict among smaller states is more prevalent in history.

Taxation in Kautilya’s Arthashastra

Kautilya envisioned taxation as part of a dharmic social contract between the king and the citizens, where taxes were levied to maintain social order and support state-run welfare programs. This mutual obligation meant that if the king failed in his duty—such as protecting the citizens from external aggression—the people could demand tax relief.

Key Principles of Taxation

Purpose of Taxation:
Taxes were collected to fund the administration, maintain the welfare apparatus, and ensure the security of the state, including maintaining a robust standing army.
Certainty in Taxation:
Kautilya emphasized clarity and predictability in the tax system.
- Taxes were stable in terms of time, rate, and mode of payment.
- This predictability encouraged trade and commerce, bolstering the state’s revenue base.
Equity and Administration:
- A periodic land census and meticulously maintained land records allowed accurate assessment of taxable capacities.
- Taxes were levied in proportion to the citizens’ capacity and contribution to society.

Types of Taxes

Kautilya’s taxation system tapped into virtually all sources of revenue, ensuring a comprehensive approach:

Land Tax:
Farmers paid one-sixth of their produce as land tax. Households served as the unit of assessment.
Trade and Commerce:
- Traders paid one-tenth of the value of their merchandise as tax.
- There were additional taxes, such as entry taxes for forts and taxes on the use of roads and waterways.
Professional Taxes:
Various professions, including actors, dancers, soothsayers, prostitutes, and auctioneers, were taxed based on their services.
Pilgrimage Tax:
Pilgrims paid a Yatra Vetna to visit religious or holy sites.
Benevolence Tax:
Acts of goodwill or charity by citizens were also taxed under the Pranaya Kriya.
Forest and Hermit Tax:
Even hermits living in forests were required to pay one-sixth of the grain they gleaned, as they too benefited from the king’s protection.

Impact on Society

Kautilya’s tax system played a critical role in ensuring economic stability and social welfare:

The certainty of taxes encouraged trade and economic activity, creating a prosperous economy in the Mauryan empire.
By tapping into multiple revenue streams, the state could sustain its welfare programs and maintain its defenses.
The equitable approach to taxation fostered a sense of accountability between the ruler and the ruled, ensuring a balanced and sustainable economic structure.

In summary, Kautilya’s tax policies were grounded in pragmatism and fairness, aiming to secure the economic well-being of the state while upholding the dharma of mutual responsibility between the king and his citizens.

Bureaucracy in Kautilya’s Arthashastra

Kautilya established a highly organized and intricate bureaucratic system to manage the vast Mauryan Empire, reflecting the centralized nature of the state. This bureaucracy was divided into thirty departments, each headed by an Adhyaksha (Chief), with clearly defined reporting hierarchies.

Key Features of the Bureaucracy

Centralization and Organization:
- The bureaucracy was structured and centralized, ensuring the efficient administration of the empire.
- Reporting relationships were explicitly defined, leaving little room for ambiguity.
Provision of Public Goods:
Kautilya understood the necessity of public goods to strengthen trade and commerce. Bureaucracy was involved in:
- Quality Control:
  Merchandise had to carry the Abhigyan Mudra (state stamp) in vermillion, ensuring authenticity. Counterfeiting was severely punished.
- Standardization of Weights and Measures:
  A consistent system of weights and measures promoted fairness in trade.
- Currency Regulation:
  An organized system of currency facilitated smoother trade and commerce.

Compensation and Corruption Control

Fixed Pay and Benefits:
- Bureaucrats were paid a fixed salary and received state-subsidized housing, discouraging exploitative practices.
- This system was a significant departure from the ad-valorem compensation used in later empires, where officials retained a portion of revenue, incentivizing excessive taxation.
Preventing Corruption:
Kautilya implemented several measures to address the principal-agent problem inherent in large bureaucracies:
- Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs):
  SOPs minimized discretionary powers, reducing opportunities for misuse of authority.
- Monitoring and Intelligence:
  - Superiors closely monitored bureaucratic performance.
  - Spies and intelligence agents were employed to expose corruption, with publicized cases serving as deterrents.
- Decentralization:
  Local guilds and decentralized authorities acted as effective checks on bureaucrats, ensuring adherence to royal edicts.

Minimizing Ideological Dependence

Unlike other administrative philosophies, Kautilya did not rely on ideology or moral teachings to discipline bureaucrats. He recognized that violations of SOPs already went against the bureaucrat’s dharma. Instead, he focused on practical mechanisms such as clear rules, strict oversight, and local accountability to ensure compliance.

Efficiency and Limitations

Kautilya’s approach to bureaucracy demonstrated deep insight into statecraft and governance.
However, close monitoring and intelligence operations likely introduced significant transaction costs. Despite this, the system’s checks and balances ensured that the bureaucracy functioned effectively and served the state’s interests.

In essence, Kautilya’s bureaucratic framework was a blend of centralization, accountability, and local empowerment, designed to minimize corruption and maximize efficiency in managing the empire’s vast resources.

Conclusion

Kautilya, also known as Chanakya, is credited with defeating Alexander of Macedonia and the Nanda dynasty—then the most powerful Indian empire—through a combination of military acumen and political strategy. He emphasized the need for a king to guard against threats both internal and external. Internal threats included the inner cabinet, autonomous guilds and associations, religious orders, and even the king’s own flaws (atma-dosa). External threats referred to hostile foreign powers.

Kautilya established a sophisticated intelligence network that penetrated nearly every institution and profession, particularly those with mass participation, such as religion. Spies operated under various disguises, including fraudulent students (karateka chhatra), recluses (udasthita), householders (grihapalka), merchants (vaidehaka), ascetics (tapas), classmates (satire), agitators (Mishna), poisoners (Masada), and mendicant women (bhikshuni).

Monks and sanghas (monastic associations) were also used for intelligence gathering. In a striking example of his pragmatism, Kautilya even recommended hiding weapons inside religious idols to assassinate rival kings during worship. This underscores his readiness to use religious institutions as tools for statecraft. For Kautilya, the state, not religion, was the foremost institution for ensuring dharma.

The efficiency of his intelligence operations was further enhanced by the maintenance of a “national citizen register” and the implementation of a passport and visa system. The register was regularly updated through systematic censuses and the compulsory registration of births and deaths.

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