A global linguistic survey reveals a total of 6,912 languages spoken worldwide, of which 516 are either extinct or on the brink of extinction. In India, there are 1,652 dialects, with several of its tribal languages also facing the threat of extinction. According to a crucial report from UNICEF, up to 6,000 dialects could vanish by the end of the 21st century, which is indeed a matter of grave concern. The loss of a language is akin to the loss of a human being, as both are intricately linked. Thus, language and humanity are interdependent. In this context, Odia stands out as a progressive and promising language.
On July 23, 2013, a committee of language experts appointed by the Sahitya Akademi, under the Ministry of Culture of the Central Government, recommended that Odia be granted classical status. This proposal was approved by the Council of Ministers on February 20, 2014. With this achievement, Odia became the sixth language to attain such recognition. Apart from Sanskrit, Odia is the only Indo-Aryan language to receive this honor, joining the ranks of four Dravidian languages—Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, and Malayalam.
Thanks to the benevolent efforts of great litterateurs over centuries, Odia language and literature have flourished and carved out a distinct identity on the global linguistic map. The origins of Odia language and literature can be traced back to at least the 12th century CE.
The Odia language and its written form are both special and unique. It was formally established by the Ganga kings after 1110 CE. Their reign, lasting for nearly four centuries, helped shape the region known as Utkal. The modern form of Odia emerged in the 15th century CE, particularly under the rule of Gajapati King Kapilendra Dev. One of the most significant contributions during this period came from Sudramuni Sarala Das, a soldier in King Kapilendra’s army, who composed the monumental epic, the Mahabharat, in Odia. Sarala Das is widely regarded as the architect who refined and elevated Odia, transitioning it from Prakrit and Apabhramsha forms into a more polished version.
Language is a reflection of a nation’s culture and its development over time. As civilization advances, so too does its language, becoming more refined and progressive. In evaluating the cultural heritage of a nation, language plays a pivotal role. This truth holds for all nations, including Odisha.
A nation cannot exist without a language, as language and literature are inseparable. Language is the medium through which thoughts, emotions, and imagination are expressed, whether orally or in writing, and when these expressions are formed, they become literature. A nation is often admired for its rich and sophisticated literature, and Odisha is no exception. From the pre-Sarala era to the present day, numerous renowned writers have enriched the literary treasure of Goddess Saraswati, and the vast landscape of Odia literature has captivated scholars both in India and abroad.
In earlier times, Sanskrit scholars and poets controlled the literary domain, and writing in Odia was discouraged, often viewed as a form of punishment. However, Poet Sarala Das defied these restrictions and courageously produced the Odia Mahabharata in the 15th century. It is not merely a translation of Vyasa’s Sanskrit Mahabharata, but rather an original creation in its own right. This groundbreaking work shook the literary world and paved the way for the future of Odia literature. Following the Sarala Yuga, the Pancha Sakha Yuga marked a significant era in Vaisnava literature.
The five Vaisnava poets—Balaram, Jagannath, Achutananda, Yosabanta, and Ananta—considered themselves servants of Lord Jagannath, adopting the surname “Das” regardless of their castes. United by their devotion to Lord Jagannath and a shared religious ideology, they are known as the Pancha Sakha (five friends). Their literary contributions include Balaram Das’s Dandi Ramayan, Jagannath Das’s Bhagabat, and Achutananda Das’s Haribansha, along with other notable religious works. The Pancha Sakha Yuga is a defining period in Odia literature, following the Sarala Yuga.
The subsequent period, known as the Riti Yuga (also referred to as Madhya Yuga, Kabya Yuga, or Vakti Yuga), spans two centuries and is considered the golden age of Odia literature. The earliest poet of this era, Dina Krishna Das, is best known for his Rasakallola, a celebrated work that captures the essence of poetic love. During the language crisis of the 19th century, the great linguist John Beams praised its literary value and championed the cause of preserving the originality of the Odia language.
Other notable poets of the Riti Yuga include Kabi Samrat Upendra Bhanja, Abhimanyu Samanta Singhar, Kabi Surya Baladeva Ratha, and Gopal Krushna, whose writings are known for their elaborate language, devotional themes, and romantic expressions. Important poetic works of this time include Vaideisha Vilas, Bidagdha Cintamani, and Kishore Chandranana Champu. Undoubtedly, Riti literature played a crucial role in enriching Odia language and literature.
The 19th century CE saw a significant struggle for the survival of the Odia language, as it faced an intentional threat from some self-interested Bengalis who claimed that Odia was merely a dialect of Bengali. This language conflict emerged after Odisha was annexed by the British in 1803. Many British officials, unaware of the distinctiveness of Odia, mistakenly assumed it was a dialect of Bengali. As a result, they replaced Odia with Bengali as the official language in Odisha’s courts between 1848 and 1849.
Following the British occupation, the Odias showed little interest in learning English and developed a strong aversion to the foreign language. In their pursuit of power, many Bengali-speaking individuals from Bengal flooded into Odisha, securing important government positions, many of them dishonestly. The Odias, however, were not quick to protest, despite the growing influence of these Bengali officials and their attempts to dominate the cultural and administrative spheres. In particular, Bengali landlords, known as Zamindars, pushed to replace Odia with Bengali in their regions, even setting up Bengali-only schools, such as one established by Mandal Babu of Balasore in a remote area. Additionally, some Bengali officers in coastal Odisha participated in efforts to suppress the Odia language.
The claim that Odia was merely a dialect of Bengali, made by Bouring Sahib, was refuted by Commissioner Goldsbury. Kanti Chandra Bhattacharya and other Bengali critics of Odia fell silent after strong arguments by John Beams, Goldsbury, and Rangalal Bandopadhyaya, all of whom demonstrated that Odia was an independent, original language. During this period of linguistic conflict, the Odia nationalist and writer Fakir Mohan Senapati is particularly remembered for his significant sacrifice in establishing a vernacular press at Balasore, alongside Shyamananda De. This press played a crucial role in producing textbooks, newspapers, and periodicals that promoted the Odia language.
Newspapers played a vital role in safeguarding the interests of Odia language and literature. Publications such as Utkal Deepika, Utkal Hiteishini, Sambad Vahika, Utkal Darpana, Sambalpur Hiteisini, Nava Sambad, Cuttack Argos, Cuttack Star, Cuttack Standard, and Cuttack Chronicle provided invaluable support to the cause of Odia nationalism, both during the language conflict and afterward. Furthermore, several eminent Bengali individuals, who were long-time residents of Odisha, supported the Odia language, with their contributions being indispensable. Notable among them are Gouri Sankar Ray, the distinguished editor of Utkal Deepika, as well as Raja Baikunthanath De, Radhanath Ray, Ramsankar Ray, Rammohan Ray, and Pyarimohan Acharya.
The Bengali elite who had settled in Odisha largely remained distant from the language conflict. Eventually, in 1869, the British government officially recognized Odia as a distinct language, marking a major blow to the Bengali opposition. The Christian missionaries, seeking to spread Christianity, contributed to the spread of regional languages by publishing religious texts in them, including Odia. Missionaries such as Keri, Marsman, and Ward played a significant role in advancing Odia by printing religious scriptures, which contributed to the language’s progress.
By the mid-1870s, the language conflict (which had persisted from 1841 to 1870) had come to an end, with Odia emerging victorious in its struggle for recognition.
The best predictor of the future is the past, and this holds true for the educated Odias of the 19th century. It was the language crisis that sparked a profound shift in their mindset. Not only did they make significant contributions to Odia literature through abundant writings, but they also became committed to uniting the Odia-speaking regions, which had been fragmented due to the arbitrary policies of the Mughal and Maratha rulers. As a result, Odisha was gradually conquered by the East India Company. This linguistic unity ultimately paved the way for a political movement centered on the geographical territory of Odisha. In the long run, the nationalist efforts bore fruit when Odisha was declared a separate province by the British government on April 1, 1936. The long-cherished dream of Odia-speaking people to live in one unified province finally came true.
The 19th century was a pivotal period, marked by significant events. The language conflict, the introduction of English in education, the enthusiasm of young people to learn English, and the emergence of modern literary trends were all key developments that brought about a radical transformation in Odia society. Odia language itself evolved significantly during this period. Due to its adaptability, certain English words began to be integrated into both spoken and written Odia. Additionally, the global phenomena and contemporary literary trends were eagerly embraced by the youth educated in Western styles.
The modern literary movement began in Kolkata after the Battle of Plassey (1757), but in Odisha, it took shape only after British occupation in 1803. During this time, literary giants such as Fakir Mohan Senapati, Radhanath Ray, Nanda Kishore Bal, and Madhusudan Rao enriched Odia language in unique ways. Fakir Mohan Senapati, in particular, was a pioneer of modern prose. His iconic novel Chhamana Athaguntha, based on the socio-political realities of Odisha, raised significant issues, focusing on the exploitation of the weaver-cultivators, Saria and Bhagia, by the greedy landlord Rama Chandra Mangaraj.
Radhanath Ray introduced modern trends in Odia poetry, drawing influence from European, Roman, and English literature. Nanda Kishore Bal, affectionately known as Palli Kabi, focused on rural life and beautifully depicted village scenes in his poetry. Madhusudan Rao, another successful poet, explored the spiritual connection between the soul and the supernatural in his works.
The 20th century was historically significant due to the freedom movement, which had a profound impact on Indian literature. Several freedom fighters also became writers during their time in prison. In Odisha, notable figures like Pandit Gopabandhu Das, Dr. Harekrushna Mahtab, and Nityananda Mohapatra emerged as prominent writers, creating impactful works from behind prison walls.
During the Swadeshi movement, many students, inspired by national leaders, left English schools to study in national schools. Gopabandhu Das founded the Satyabadi Bana Vidyalaya in Sakhigopal near Puri, which became a hub for students with a deep love for their motherland. Eminent teachers such as Gopabandhu Das, Pandit Nilakantha Das, Godavarish Mishra, and Lingaraj Mishra, who were part of the Satyabadi group, not only contributed to the freedom struggle but also created patriotic literature. As a result, the Satyabadi period in Odia literature is remembered for its strong emphasis on patriotism and nationalism.
After the Satyabadi Yuga, patriotic literature flourished extensively in Odia. The freedom struggle greatly influenced many novelists, with figures like Dr. Harekrushna Mahtab, Surendra Mohanty, Nityananda Mohapatra, and Ram Prasad Sing being prominent in this genre. However, Nityananda Mohapatra stands out for his exceptional contributions. He played a significant role in various literary domains and achieved great success in journalism. His novels earned widespread recognition and fame, cementing his place as a key figure in Odia literature. Odia novel literature would be incomplete without his works.
In the post-independence era, Odia language has seen remarkable growth, which is a positive sign for the nation’s cultural and linguistic future. Language is a dynamic and evolving force, and Odia has flourished significantly over time. With its rich cultural heritage, Odia has earned the distinction of being recognized as a “classical language,” a truly spectacular achievement.
First Published in Odisha Review (April-May 2020)
Original Writing: Dr. Sarbeswar Sena
Edited and Rewritten: Brajabandhu Mahanta, MCA, MA
References:
- The Sambad, 3rd September 2014 – Kete Bhasa Keun Bhabe by Dr. Sarat Chandra Pattnaik
- Odia Jatira Itihas O Samskruti by Dr. Prabodh Kumar Mishra, p. 18
- History of Orissa by Dr. R.D. Banarjee, p. 279
- A History of Odisha (Ed. Dr. N.K. Sahu) – British Salt Policy in Orissa by S.N. Choudhury, p. 60
- A History of Odisha (Ed. Dr. N.K. Sahu) – British Salt Policy in Orissa by S.N. Choudhury, p. 59
- Madhusudan Das by Surendra Mohanty, p. 55
- History of Orissa by Dr. N.K. Sahu, Dr. P.K. Mishra, Dr. J.K. Sahu, p. 663
- Odia Sahityara Itihasa by Dr. Natabar Samantaray, p. 203