Anglo-Maratha Struggle: As the Mughal Empire declined, one of its most formidable adversaries, the Marathas, seized the opportunity to rise in power. They gained control over vast territories and collected tributes even from regions beyond their direct rule. By the mid-eighteenth century, the Marathas had advanced to Lahore, aiming to establish their dominion over northern India. They also played a significant role as kingmakers in the Mughal court.
However, the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761, where they were defeated by Ahmad Shah Abdali, marked a turning point. Despite this setback, the Marathas regrouped, recovered their strength, and within a decade reclaimed their position as a dominant power in India.
Bajirao I (1720–1740), regarded as the greatest of the Peshwas, initiated a confederacy of prominent Maratha chiefs to manage the rapidly expanding Maratha influence. This arrangement also sought to appease the kshatriya faction within the Marathas, led by the senapati Dabodi, as the Peshwas themselves were Brahmins. Under this system, each prominent Maratha family was assigned a specific sphere of influence to conquer and govern, but always in the name of the reigning Maratha king, Shahu. The major families in the confederacy were:
- the Gaekwads of Baroda,
- the Bhonsles of Nagpur,
- the Holkars of Indore,
- the Sindhias of Gwalior, and
- the Peshwas of Poona.
The confederacy functioned cohesively under Bajirao I and Madhavrao I. However, the defeat at Panipat and the untimely death of Madhavrao I in 1772 significantly weakened the Peshwas’ authority over the confederacy. While the Maratha chiefs occasionally united, such as during their resistance against the British (1775–1782), internal rivalries often undermined their collective strength.
Between the late 18th century and the early 19th century, the Marathas and the English clashed three times in their struggle for political supremacy, with the English ultimately emerging victorious. These conflicts were driven by the English’s aggressive ambitions and the internal divisions among the Marathas, which encouraged the British to believe in the success of their endeavors.
In Bombay, the English aspired to establish a system of governance similar to the one Clive had implemented in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. The succession disputes that fragmented the Marathas provided the English with the perfect opportunity to advance their objectives.
First Anglo-Maratha War (1775–1782)
After the death of Madhavrao I in 1772, his brother Narayanrao succeeded him as the fifth Peshwa. However, Narayanrao’s uncle, Raghunathrao, orchestrated his assassination and declared himself the Peshwa, despite not being the legal heir. Following Narayanrao’s death, his widow, Gangabai, gave birth to a son, Sawai Madhavrao, who was legally recognized as the rightful Peshwa.
Twelve prominent Maratha chiefs, known as the Barabhai and led by Nana Phadnavis, supported the infant Peshwa and ruled as regents on his behalf.
Treaties of Surat and Purandhar
Raghunathrao, unwilling to relinquish power, sought British support in Bombay and signed the Treaty of Surat (1775). In exchange for ceding Salsette, Bassein, and portions of revenue from Surat and Bharuch, the English agreed to provide him with 2,500 soldiers.
The British Calcutta Council condemned the Treaty of Surat and sent Colonel Upton to Pune to negotiate the Treaty of Purandhar (1776). This treaty annulled Raghunathrao’s claim and offered him a pension. However, the Bombay government rejected this agreement and continued to back Raghunathrao.
In 1777, Nana Phadnavis breached the treaty with the Calcutta Council by granting the French access to a west coast port. The British retaliated by mobilizing a force towards Pune, setting the stage for war.
Course of the War
The Maratha and English forces clashed near Pune. Although the Marathas had a numerical advantage, the English possessed superior weaponry and cannons. The Maratha army, under the brilliant command of Mahadji Sindhia (Mahadji Shinde), employed strategic tactics. Mahadji lured the English into the mountain passes near Talegaon, cut off their supply lines at Khopoli, and used scorched earth tactics by burning farmland and poisoning wells.
As the English retreated to Talegaon, the Marathas launched relentless attacks, forcing them to withdraw further to Wadgaon. Surrounded and deprived of food and water, the English surrendered in January 1779 and signed the Treaty of Wadgaon, which compelled the British to relinquish all territories acquired since 1775.
Treaty of Salbai (1782): The End of the First Phase
Warren Hastings, the Governor-General of Bengal, rejected the Treaty of Wadgaon. He dispatched reinforcements under Colonel Goddard, who captured Ahmedabad (1779) and Bassein (1780). Another British force under Captain Popham took Gwalior (1780), and in 1781, General Camac defeated Mahadji Sindhia at Sipri.
Sindhia initiated peace negotiations, leading to the Treaty of Salbai (1782). Ratified in 1783, the treaty ensured twenty years of peace between the English and the Marathas.
Provisions of the Treaty of Salbai
- Salsette would remain under English control.
- All territories acquired since the Treaty of Purandhar (1776), including Bassein, were to be returned to the Marathas.
- Fateh Singh Gaekwad would retain his pre-war territory in Gujarat while continuing to serve the Peshwa.
- The English would cease supporting Raghunathrao, and the Peshwa would grant him a maintenance allowance.
- Haidar Ali was to return territory taken from the English and the Nawab of Arcot.
- The English retained their trading privileges.
- The Peshwa would not align with any other European power.
- The Peshwa and the English pledged that their respective allies would maintain peace.
- Mahadji Sindhia acted as the guarantor for the treaty’s implementation.
Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803–1805)
The Second Anglo-Maratha War began under circumstances reminiscent of the first. After the suicide of Peshwa Madhavrao Narayan in 1795, Bajirao II, the ineffectual son of Raghunathrao, became the Peshwa. His appointment was marred by conflicts, particularly with Nana Phadnavis, a staunch adversary who became chief minister. The internal discord among the Marathas offered the British a convenient opportunity to intervene. The death of Nana Phadnavis in 1800 further weakened the Marathas and bolstered British ambitions.
Course of the War
On April 1, 1801, Bajirao II ordered the brutal murder of Vithuji Holkar, brother of Jaswantrao Holkar (also referred to as Yashwantrao). Enraged, Jaswantrao mobilized his forces against the combined armies of Sindhia and Bajirao II. The conflict escalated, culminating in Jaswantrao’s decisive victory at Hadapsar near Poona on October 25, 1802. He deposed Bajirao II and installed Vinayakrao, son of Amritrao, as Peshwa.
Fleeing in terror, Bajirao II sought refuge with the British in Bassein, where he signed the Treaty of Bassein on December 31, 1802.
Treaty of Bassein (1802)
Under the terms of the treaty, the Peshwa agreed to:
- Accept a permanent British contingent of at least 6,000 native infantry, along with field artillery and European artillerymen, stationed in his territory.
- Cede territories yielding an annual income of ₹26 lakh to the Company.
- Surrender the city of Surat.
- Renounce all claims for chauth on the Nizam’s dominions.
- Submit disputes with the Nizam or the Gaekwad to British arbitration.
- Prohibit the employment of Europeans allied with nations at war with the British.
- Place his foreign relations under British control.
This effectively reduced the Peshwa to a British vassal.
Maratha Resistance and Defeat
Sindhia and Bhonsle attempted to preserve Maratha sovereignty but faced a well-organized British army under Arthur Wellesley. They were defeated in a series of battles and forced to sign separate subsidiary treaties:
- Treaty of Devgaon (December 17, 1803): Bhonsle surrendered.
- Treaty of Surajianjangaon (December 30, 1803): Sindhia capitulated.
In 1804, Jaswantrao Holkar attempted to form a coalition of Indian rulers against the British but failed. The Marathas were decisively defeated, isolated from one another, and reduced to vassalage. Holkar eventually signed the Treaty of Rajpurghat in 1806, marking the end of Maratha resistance.
Significance of the Treaty of Bassein
While the treaty was signed by a politically weak Peshwa, its implications were profound. By stationing British troops permanently in Maratha territory, the Company gained a significant strategic advantage. With garrisons already established in Mysore, Hyderabad, and Lucknow, the addition of Poona allowed the British to mobilize forces swiftly across India.
Though the treaty did not immediately transfer control of India to the British, it laid a critical foundation for their territorial and political expansion. The claim that the treaty “gave the English the key to India” may be an overstatement but is certainly justifiable given its far-reaching consequences.
Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–1819)
Lord Hastings pursued an imperialistic policy aimed at establishing British paramountcy in India. The Charter Act of 1813, which ended the East India Company’s trade monopoly (except for tea and trade with China), created a need for new markets, further fueling British expansionism.
The Pindaris, a group of mercenaries of diverse origins, were historically attached to Maratha armies. As the Marathas weakened, the Pindaris lost regular employment and resorted to plundering nearby territories, including British-controlled areas. The British accused the Marathas of harboring Pindaris. While some Pindari leaders, such as Amir Khan and Karim Khan, surrendered, others like Chitu Khan fled into the forests.
The Treaty of Bassein (1802), which effectively subjugated the Peshwa, deeply offended other Maratha leaders, who viewed it as a surrender of their independence. Lord Hastings’ campaign against the Pindaris was perceived as a violation of Maratha sovereignty, reigniting Maratha resistance. Bajirao II, in a final attempt to resist British dominance, rallied the Maratha chiefs in 1817, leading to the Third Anglo-Maratha War.
Course of the War
The conflict began with coordinated Maratha attacks:
- The Peshwa attacked the British Residency in Poona.
- Appa Sahib of Nagpur attacked the Residency in Nagpur.
- The Holkars mobilized for war.
However, the Marathas were no longer the formidable force they had once been. Political instability and administrative inefficiency plagued their states:
- After the death of Jaswantrao Holkar, Tulsi Bai, his favorite mistress, assumed power in Poona. Despite her intelligence, she struggled to govern effectively due to undue influence from individuals like Balram Seth and Amir Khan.
- The Bhonsles of Nagpur and the Sindhias of Gwalior were similarly weakened.
The British responded with decisive force, preventing the Peshwa from reestablishing control over the Maratha confederacy.
Outcome
The British achieved victory in key battles:
- The Peshwa was defeated at Khirki.
- The Bhonsles were defeated at Sitabuldi.
- The Holkars were defeated at Mahidpur.
The war culminated in a series of significant treaties:
- Treaty of Poona (June 1817): Signed with the Peshwa.
- Treaty of Gwalior (November 1817): Signed with Sindhia.
- Treaty of Mandasor (January 1818): Signed with the Holkars.
In June 1818, the Peshwa surrendered, and the Maratha confederacy was officially dissolved. The peshwaship was abolished, marking the end of Maratha political influence. Bajirao II was relegated to a life of obscurity as a British pensioner in Bithur, near Kanpur.
To placate Maratha sentiments, Pratap Singh, a descendant of Shivaji, was made the ruler of the small princely state of Satara, carved from the Peshwa’s former territories.
Significance
The Third Anglo-Maratha War marked the final defeat of the Marathas, consolidating British control over most of India. It symbolized the end of indigenous resistance to British expansion and paved the way for the establishment of British paramountcy in the subcontinent.
Reasons for the Marathas’ Defeat
The Marathas’ defeat by the English can be attributed to several key factors:
1. Inept Leadership
The Maratha state relied heavily on the personality and competence of its leaders. However, later Maratha leaders like Bajirao II, Daulatrao Sindhia, and Jaswantrao Holkar proved to be selfish and ineffective. In contrast, the English fielded capable and strategic officials such as Elphinstone, John Malcolm, and Arthur Wellesley, who later achieved fame by defeating Napoleon.
2. Defective Nature of the Maratha State
The Maratha state’s cohesion was artificial and lacked organic unity. From Shivaji’s time onward, there was no structured effort to promote communal improvement, spread education, or unify the people. The state’s foundation on a religio-national movement proved inadequate when facing a European power organized on advanced, modern principles.
3. Weak Political Structure
The Maratha Empire functioned as a loose confederation under the nominal leadership of the Chhatrapati and later the Peshwa. Influential chiefs like the Gaikwad, Holkar, Sindhia, and Bhonsle created semi-independent kingdoms, paying only token allegiance to the Peshwa. Their internal hostilities and lack of cooperation undermined the unity of the empire, making it vulnerable to external threats.
4. Inferior Military System
Despite their personal bravery and valor, the Marathas lagged behind the English in military organization, weaponry, discipline, and leadership. Divided command structures and internal treachery weakened their forces. Additionally, their adoption of modern warfare techniques was inadequate, and they neglected the critical role of artillery. The Poona government’s artillery department existed in name only and failed to function effectively.
5. Unstable Economic Policy
The Marathas failed to adapt their economy to meet changing times. They lacked industries and opportunities for foreign trade, resulting in an unstable economic foundation that hindered their political and military stability.
6. Superior English Diplomacy and Espionage
The English excelled in diplomacy, skillfully isolating the Marathas and winning allies. Disunity among Maratha chiefs made this task easier. The English also maintained an effective spy network, gathering critical intelligence on their enemies’ strengths, weaknesses, and strategies, while the Marathas remained unaware of the English’s capabilities.
7. Progressive English Outlook
The English benefitted from the progressive spirit of the Renaissance, which encouraged scientific innovation, exploration, and colonial expansion. In contrast, the Marathas were steeped in medieval traditions, clinging to outdated dogmas and social hierarchies. The dominance of the priestly class and resistance to change hindered their ability to adapt to modern statecraft.
Conclusion
The Marathas were essentially a “divided house,” and their internal divisions made them susceptible to British conquest. The superior organization, strategy, and diplomacy of the English, combined with the Marathas’ inherent weaknesses, ensured their defeat after only a few determined pushes.