Ancient Kingdoms and Empires in Odisha

Odisha was historically known as Kalinga, an early kingdom in central East India encompassing most of modern Odisha, along with parts of Andhra Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. Kalinga gained significant historical prominence as the battleground for the Kalinga War fought by Emperor Ashoka of the Mauryan Empire.

According to Buddhist texts like the Mahagovinda Sutta and various Jatakas, Kalinga was an independent kingdom with Dantapur as its capital. Jain literature, such as the Uttaradhyayana Sutra and Sutra Krutanga, mentions that the palaces of Kalinga’s rulers and wealthy merchants were made of ivory, leading to the city’s name, “Dantapur.”

Kalinga Under the Nandas

• Mahapadmananda, the Nanda dynasty’s founder, ascended the throne of Magadha in 362 BCE and integrated Kalinga into his empire around 350 BCE.
• Archaeological findings from Asurgarh in Kalahandi and Sonepur indicate Kalinga’s economic prosperity during Nanda rule through discoveries of black polished pottery and punch-marked coins.
• The Hatigumpha inscription at Udayagiri mentions major irrigation projects undertaken during the Nanda reign.

Kalinga and the Mauryas

• Chandragupta Maurya overthrew the last Nanda ruler, Dhanananda, in 322 BCE, establishing the Mauryan Empire.
• While the exact timeline of Kalinga’s independence post-Maurya rule remains uncertain, it continued to be a significant Mahajanapada.

The Kalinga War (261 BCE)

The Kalinga War, fought in 261 BCE between the Mauryan Empire and Kalinga, is one of the most significant events in Odishan history. It was described by Ashoka in his Thirteenth Rock Edict.

• Kalinga, though small, was economically prosperous due to its thriving overseas trade.
• Ashoka waged war to control Kalinga’s trade routes. The conflict resulted in massive destruction, with heavy casualties and widespread suffering.
• This devastation profoundly transformed Ashoka, leading him to embrace Buddhism under the guidance of Upagupta, a disciple of Buddha. This war is considered pivotal in both Odisha’s and India’s history.

Mauryan Administration in Kalinga

• After its annexation, Tosali (modern-day Dhauli) became the capital of Kalinga under Mauryan rule.
• The Dhauli and Jaugada edicts reveal Mauryan governance, including the appointment of a Kumara Viceroy with a council of ministers.
• Key administrative roles:
  • Antamahamatras: Ministers for border provinces.
  • Dharma Mahamatras: Responsible for moral and spiritual welfare.
  • Rajukas: Oversaw the welfare of rural communities (Janapadas).

Ashoka’s well-organized administration ensured efficient governance and laid the foundation for Kalinga’s integration into the Mauryan Empire.

Dynasties in Odisha After Mauryan Empire

After the decline of the Mauryan Empire, Odisha witnessed the rise of various dynasties, each contributing to its rich historical and cultural legacy.

Mahameghavahana/Chedi Dynasty

• Mahameghavahana, the founder of this dynasty, belonged to the Chedi clan, hence it is also known as the Chedi dynasty.
• This ancient dynasty rose to power in Kalinga after the Mauryan rule, with Kharavela as its most prominent king.

Kharavela (1st Century BCE)

• The third ruler of the Chedi dynasty, Kharavela is primarily known through the Hathigumpha inscription at Udayagiri near Bhubaneswar.
• A formidable ruler, he led successful campaigns, notably against the Satavahanas, capturing their territories.
• Kharavela was a patron of music, dance, and architecture, rebuilding Kalinganagari, the capital, after a devastating cyclone.
• Though a devout Jain, he showed religious tolerance, supporting diverse faiths.

Muranda Dynasty

• The Murandas were believed to be a foreign tribe, possibly entering India alongside the Kushanas.
• They ruled for nearly 200 years, with historical evidence such as the Bhadraka stone inscription of Maharaja Ganabhadra, suggesting their influence in Odisha.

Gupta Dynasty

• Founded by Sri Gupta, the Gupta Empire (mid-3rd century to 590 CE) brought significant political changes to Odisha.
• During Samudragupta’s southern campaigns around 350 CE, Kalinga was divided into four principalities:
  • Kottura (modern Kathoor)
  • Erandapalla (modern Erandapalli)
  • Devarashtra (Yellamachili)
  • Pishtapura (Pithapuram)
• The Allahabad Pillar Inscription records Samudragupta’s defeat of:
  • Mahendragiri of Pishtapura
  • Swamidatta of Kottura
  • Damana of Erandapalla
  • Kutera of Devarashtra
• Following Samudragupta’s campaigns, new regional powers emerged:
  • The Matharas in the coastal region around Mahendragiri.
  • The Nalas in Bastar, Koraput, and Kalahandi regions.

These dynasties laid the foundation for Odisha’s cultural, administrative, and religious growth, shaping its historical identity for centuries.

Rise of Small Kingdoms in Kalinga During the Gupta Period

During the Gupta period, several small but significant kingdoms emerged around the coastal and interior regions of Kalinga, contributing to the region’s political, cultural, and economic development.

The Matharas

• The Mathara dynasty ruled during the 4th and 5th centuries with its capital at Vardhamanapura (modern Bhramarapura).
• Their territory stretched from the present-day Ganjam district of Odisha to Srikakulam district of Andhra Pradesh.
• Founded by Visakhavarman, the Matharas were devout followers of Narayana (Vishnu) and supported Sanskrit literature.
• Their administrative divisions included Panchali, Bhoga, and Vishaya, establishing a strong governance system.
• Umavarman, who declared himself Lord of Kalinga, and Shaktivarman, who expanded the territory from the Mahanadi to the Krishna River, were notable rulers.
• The dynasty witnessed the decline of Buddhism and Jainism and facilitated extensive maritime trade with Southeast Asia through Dantapur (modern Palur).

The Nalas

• The Nala dynasty established their kingdom in the Trikalinga region, covering modern Koraput and Kalahandi.
• Their capital was Pushkari, and their reign marked the revival of Vaishnavism.
• Founded by Vrishadhvaja in 400 CE, prominent rulers included Varaharaja, Bhavadatta Varman, and Skandavarman.

The Parvatadvarkas

• A lesser-known dynasty that emerged in the Belkhandi-Narla region of Kalahandi during the 5th century CE.
• Parvatadvarka served as their capital, with Nandaraja and Tustikara being key rulers.

The Meghas

• Originating in Kosala around the mid-6th century, they were descendants of the Mahameghavahanas, who resettled after their defeat by the Satavahanas.
• They ruled over South Kosala, covering modern Raipur, Bilaspur, Sambalpur, Sundergarh, and Balangir.
• According to the Puranas, nine Megha kings ruled until the invasion of Samudragupta, with Mahendra Megha being the last ruler.

The Vindyatavis (Nagas)

• The Nagas of Vindyatavi governed in the 4th century CE over modern Keonjhar and Dhenkanal districts.
• The Asanpat inscription mentions Satrubhanja, a Naga king who defeated the Devaputras (Kushanas and Murundas).
• Another notable ruler was Maharaja Sri Disabhanja, as evidenced by an inscription in a cave near Sitabhinji.

The Sarbhapuriyas

• Founded by Sarabharaja (500-525 CE), this dynasty ruled over South Kosala, with its capital at Sarbhapura.
• His successor, Maharaja Narendra (525-555 CE), was known for his independent rule and administrative reforms.
• Other prominent rulers included Jayaraja, Surdevaraja I, Vyaghraraja, Durgaraja, and Surdevaraja II.

These dynasties played a crucial role in shaping the political landscape of Odisha after the Gupta period, fostering a legacy of cultural and economic progress.

Emergence of New Dynasties in Odisha

After the decline of the Guptas, Odisha witnessed the rise of several dynasties, each contributing significantly to the region’s political, cultural, and administrative evolution.

The Vigrahas

• The Vigrahas came to power in the late 6th century CE, with South Tosali as their political center, encompassing Balasore, Cuttack, and Puri districts.
• Prithvivigraha, a powerful ruler, engaged in a conflict with Mudgala king Sambhuyasa. His successor, Lokavigraha, defeated Sambhuyasa but faced resistance from the Mudgalas.

The Mudgalas

• Ruling over North Tosali, the Mudgalas are known through copper plate grants from Erbang, Soro, and Patiakela.
• King Sambhuyasa initially defeated Lokavigraha but lost ground due to prolonged conflict, eventually being ousted by Durjaya King Prithvimaharaja.

The Mandala States

• Between the 7th and 9th centuries CE, semi-independent Mandala states emerged between Tosali and South Kosala.
• Rulers assumed titles like ‘Ranaka’ and ‘Samadhigata-Panchamahasabda’, serving sovereigns during wars.
• Prominent dynasties included:
  • Vigrahas of Kongoda Mandala
  • Gangas of Svetaka Mandala
  • Bhanjas of Khinjali and Khijjinga Mandalas
  • Sulkis of Kodalaka Mandala
  • Tungas of Yamagartta Mandala
  • Mayuras of Banai Mandala

The Sailodbhava Dynasty

• Ranabhita founded the Sailodbhava dynasty in 553 CE, possibly related to the Ganja family or Sailaja tribes.
• They ruled Kongoda Mandala, covering coastal Odisha, Mahanadi, Mahendragiri, and Ganjam.
• Prominent rulers included Ranabhita (553-575 CE), Madhavaraja (615-655 CE), and Madhyamaraja III, the last ruler before the Bhauma-Karas took over.
• They built the Parashurameshvara Shiva Temple in Bhubaneswar in 650 CE, promoting Shaivism.

Bhauma-Kara Dynasty (8th–10th Century CE)

In the early 8th century CE, the Bhauma-Kara dynasty established its dominance over the coastal region of Odisha, with its capital at Guhadevapataka (near present-day Jajpur).

Founding and Key Rulers

• The early rulers identified themselves as Bhauma, while later rulers adopted the title Kara, leading to the name Bhauma-Kara dynasty.
• Kshemankaradeva founded the dynasty. Notable rulers included:
  • Sivakaradeva I (736–783 CE)
  • Subhakaradeva I (780–800 CE)
  • Sivakaradeva II (800–820 CE)
  • Shantikaradeva I (820–835 CE)
• Subhakaradeva V (905–910 CE) was the last male ruler, after which the dynasty saw a remarkable succession of female rulers.

Prominent Female Rulers

• Tribhuvana Mahadevi I (845–850 CE) was the first female ruler, ascending the throne as the widow of Shaktikaradeva I.
• Other notable female rulers included:
  • Tribhuvana Mahadevi II (890–896 CE)
  • Tribhuvana Mahadevi III (896–905 CE)
  • Gauri Mahadevi, the widow of Subhakaradeva V, who maintained law and order and constructed the Gauri Temple in Bhubaneswar.
  • Dandi Mahadevi, Gauri’s daughter, strengthened the kingdom’s defenses.
  • Vakula Mahadevi, a Bhanja princess and stepmother of Dandi Mahadevi.
  • Dharma Mahadevi, wife of Shantikaradeva III, was the last known ruler of the dynasty.

Administration, Economy, Society, and Religion

• The Bhauma-Karas provided a stable administration and followed the principle of primogeniture, although exceptions were made for female rulers.
• Textile manufacturing was the most significant industry, contributing to economic prosperity.
• Odisha maintained trade relations with Ceylon, China, and Southeast Asia during this period.
• While predominantly Buddhists, the Bhauma-Karas were tolerant of other faiths, embracing Shaivism, Vaishnavism, and Shaktism. They promoted the Varnashrama system, dividing society into Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Shudra categories.

Somavamsi Dynasty (9th–12th Century CE)

The Somavamsis, also known as the Panduvamsis, ruled Odisha from the mid-9th century to the early 12th century CE, marking a significant era in the region’s history.

Founding and Unification

• The dynasty was founded by Udayana.
• For the first time, major regions of Kalinga, Utkala, Kongoda, and Kosala were unified under a single political authority. This unification brought stability and facilitated the emergence of a distinct Odia culture.

Prominent Rulers

1. Mahabhavagupta Janmejaya I (882–922 CE)
2. Mahasivagupta Yayati I (922–955 CE)
3. Bhimaratha Mahasivagupta I (955–980 CE)
4. Janmejaya II (1065–1085 CE)
5. Puranjaya I (1085–1100 CE)
6. Karnadeva (1100–1110 CE) – The last ruler of the dynasty.

• A key cultural milestone during their reign was the construction of the Lingaraj Temple in Bhubaneswar, initiated by Chandihara Yayati II (1023–1040 CE) and completed by Udyotakesari Mahabhavagupta (1040–1065 CE).

Administration

• The Somavamsis implemented a centralized and efficient administrative system, ensuring law and order across their vast territory, covering regions that now include Balasore, Cuttack, Puri, Keonjhar, Dhenkanal, Boudh, Kandhamal, and Ganjam districts.
• They frequently shifted their capital from Vinitapura, Marusima, and Suvarnapura to Yayatinagara (modern-day Jajpur).
• The kingdom was organized into Mandalas, which were further divided into Bhuktis, and then subdivided into Bhoga, Khanda, and Grama.

Religion and Culture

• The Somavamsis were staunch followers of Brahmanism and actively supported Vedic rituals. They also patronized Brahmins, playing a significant role in preserving and promoting Hindu traditions.
• Their era laid the groundwork for a cultural synthesis that contributed to the formation of a distinct Odia identity.

Conclusion

The ancient kingdoms and empires of Odisha played a crucial role in shaping the region’s rich cultural, political, and religious heritage. From the early dynasties like the Matharas and Nalikas to the flourishing Somavamsi and Bhauma-Kara empires, each dynasty contributed uniquely to the growth of Odisha. These rulers not only established strong administrative frameworks but also fostered cultural advancements, including the promotion of arts, literature, and architecture, with monumental temples and structures standing as enduring legacies.

The unity and strength of these kingdoms in times of prosperity and struggle laid the foundation for the development of a distinct Odia identity, blending indigenous traditions with influences from various cultures across the Indian subcontinent and beyond. As these empires rose and fell, their impact on Odisha’s social, religious, and cultural landscape continued to resonate, leaving an indelible mark on the history of Eastern India. Through their contributions, the ancient rulers of Odisha ensured that their legacy would endure for generations to come, celebrating the region’s historical importance in the broader tapestry of Indian civilization.