Thomas Hobbes

Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) was an eminent English philosopher renowned for his pivotal work, “Leviathan,” published in 1651. This masterpiece solidified his influential perspective on social contract theory, marking him as a key figure in the development of modern political philosophy.

Beyond his impactful contribution to political philosophy, Hobbes left an indelible mark across a spectrum of disciplines. His intellectual pursuits spanned history, jurisprudence, geometry, theology, ethics, and broader philosophical inquiries. Widely hailed as a founding figure in modern political thought, Hobbes’s legacy endures through his multifaceted contributions.

Hobbes was born and raised in Malmesbury and received education from both the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge, graduating in 1608. Subsequently, he served as a tutor to the Cavendish family. His return to England from France in 1641 exposed him to the tumultuous English Civil War (1642–1651) between Parliamentarians and Royalists. This firsthand experience significantly shaped his advocacy for an absolutist form of governance, as expounded in “Leviathan.” The book not only delves into social contract theory but also introduces seminal concepts like the state of nature (“war of all against all”) and the laws of nature.

Among his notable works are the trilogy comprising “De Cive” (1642), “De Corpore” (1655), and “De Homine” (1658), along with the posthumously published “Behemoth” (1681). Hobbes’s intellectual repertoire extends far beyond “Leviathan,” showcasing the breadth and depth of his philosophical contributions.

Early Life

Thomas Hobbes born on April 5, 1588, in Westport, now part of Malmesbury in Wiltshire, England. Legend has it that his premature birth coincided with his mother’s alarm upon hearing news of the imminent Spanish Armada invasion, leading Hobbes to later quip, “my mother gave birth to twins: myself and fear.”

Details about Hobbes’s early years are somewhat elusive, including information about his mother. What is known is that his father, Thomas Sr., served as the vicar of both Charlton and Westport. Accounts suggest that Thomas Sr. lacked formal education, a sentiment supported by John Aubrey, Hobbes’s biographer, who noted his father’s indifference towards scholarly pursuits. Additionally, an altercation involving Thomas Sr. and local clergy members outside his church in London prompted his departure from the city. Consequently, the family found support under the care of Francis, Thomas Sr.’s elder brother—a prosperous glove manufacturer without a family of his own.

Education

Hobbes’s educational journey began at Westport church at the tender age of four. He progressed to Malmesbury school and later attended a private school run by Robert Latimer, an Oxford University graduate. Regarded as a diligent pupil, between 1601 and 1602, Hobbes pursued studies at Magdalen Hall, the precursor to Hertford College, Oxford, delving into scholastic logic and mathematics under the tutelage of John Wilkinson, a Puritan figure who left a mark on Hobbes’s intellectual development. Prior to Oxford, he showcased his linguistic prowess by translating Euripides’ Medea from Greek into Latin verse.

While at university, Hobbes seemed to chart his educational path, steering away from scholastic teachings that failed to captivate his interest. He concluded his B.A. degree by joining St John’s College, Cambridge, in 1608 through incorporation, a move recommended by Sir James Hussey, his Magdalen mentor. Hobbes’s connection with the Cavendish family commenced when he became the tutor to William Cavendish, son of William, Baron of Hardwick, later Earl of Devonshire. This association became a lifelong bond, extending through generations within the family’s lineage.

During a period when he served as tutor and secretary to various members of the Cavendish clan, including the 1st Earl of Devonshire and his son, William (later the 3rd Earl of Devonshire), Hobbes also found patronage from Charles Cavendish, whose sons supported and influenced his endeavors. His close relationship with William Cavendish, the future Duke of Newcastle, who was a prominent figure supporting Charles I during the civil war, led to the dedication of Hobbes’s “Elements of Law” to him.

Hobbes’s intellectual horizons expanded significantly during a European tour between 1610 and 1615 with the younger William Cavendish, where he encountered diverse scientific and critical methodologies, a departure from the scholastic philosophy ingrained during his time at Oxford. Notably, in Venice, Hobbes met Fulgenzio Micanzio, associated with Paolo Sarpi, a revered Venetian scholar and statesman.

Amidst his travels and scholarly pursuits, Hobbes devoted himself to a profound study of classical Greek and Latin authors, culminating in his monumental 1628 translation of Thucydides’ “History of the Peloponnesian War,” marking the first English translation from a Greek manuscript. Some argue that several discourses within the 1620 publication titled “Horae Subsecivae: Observations and Discourses” also originate from this period of Hobbes’s scholarly output.

Though Hobbes engaged with literary luminaries like Ben Jonson and briefly served as Francis Bacon’s amanuensis, translating Bacon’s Essays into Latin, his philosophical endeavors began to crystallize after 1629. The unfortunate death of his employer, the Earl of Devonshire, due to the plague in June 1628, led to Hobbes’s dismissal by the countess Christian, leaving him without employment.

In Paris (1629–1637 CE)

In 1629, Hobbes secured employment as a tutor to Gervase Clifton, Sir Gervase Clifton, 1st Baronet’s son, primarily based in Paris until November 1630. Subsequently, he resumed his association with the Cavendish family, tutoring William Cavendish, the 3rd Earl of Devonshire, eldest son of his former pupil. Over the ensuing seven years, alongside his tutoring duties, Hobbes embarked on a personal journey of philosophical exploration, sparked by an intense curiosity regarding significant philosophical debates. His intellectual pursuits led him to Florence, where he visited Galileo Galilei during the latter’s house arrest in 1636. Additionally, Hobbes became a regular participant in philosophical gatherings in Paris, convened by Marin Mersenne.

Initially fascinated by the physical doctrine of motion and momentum, Hobbes’s scholarly interests veered away from experimental physics. Instead, he conceived a comprehensive system of thought that would consume his life’s work. His ambitious plan began with the intention to develop a coherent doctrine of body in a separate treatise, demonstrating the universal explication of physical phenomena through the lens of motion, based on the understanding of mechanical action prevalent at that time. Subsequently, he delineated Man from the natural world and plant life. In a subsequent treatise, Hobbes delved into the specific bodily motions underpinning sensations, knowledge, emotions, and passions, elucidating how individuals interacted within human society. Finally, culminating in his magnum opus, Hobbes expounded on the motivations driving individuals to form societies and the necessary regulations essential to prevent regression into what he termed “brutishness and misery.” This grand design aimed to unify the distinct realms of Body, Man, and the State within a coherent philosophical framework.

In England (1637–1641 CE)

Hobbes’s return from Paris to a nation embroiled in discontent in 1637 disrupted the orderly progression of his philosophical pursuits. Despite this disruption, by the conclusion of the Short Parliament in 1640, he had authored a concise treatise titled “The Elements of Law, Natural and Politic.” Although unpublished, this work circulated among his circle but was later illicitly printed about a decade afterward. While much of “The Elements of Law” was likely composed before the Short Parliament, certain polemical sections bore the unmistakable imprint of the escalating political turmoil. Yet, Hobbes’s foundational political concepts remained largely unaltered between this early treatise and his seminal work, “Leviathan,” indicating minimal impact from the events of the English Civil War on his contractarian approach.

However, noteworthy modifications surfaced in “Leviathan” concerning the necessity of consent in establishing political obligation. In “The Elements of Law,” Hobbes asserted that Patrimonial kingdoms might not require the consent of the governed, while in “Leviathan,” he argued the opposite. This shift might reflect Hobbes’s contemplation on the engagement controversy or his reaction to treatises circulated by Patriarchalists, such as Sir Robert Filmer, during the period from 1640 to 1651.

Following the accession of the Long Parliament in November 1640, Hobbes sensed disfavor due to the circulation of his treatise and fled to Paris, remaining in exile for 11 years. In Paris, he reconnected with the intellectual circle around Mersenne and penned a critique of Descartes’ “Meditations on First Philosophy,” which was published as objections alongside Descartes’ replies in 1641. However, his critique of other works by Descartes severed their correspondence.

During this time, Hobbes expanded his own works, completing the third section, “De Cive,” in November 1641. Initially privately circulated, it garnered positive reception and contained arguments echoed a decade later in “Leviathan.” He dedicated his efforts to revising the first two sections of his work, publishing sparingly, with the exception of a brief treatise on optics, included in Mersenne’s collection of scientific tracts, “Cogitata physico-mathematica,” in 1644. Hobbes earned a respectable standing in philosophical circles and in 1645 was selected, alongside Descartes, Gilles de Roberval, and others, to arbitrate the dispute between John Pell and Longomontanus regarding the challenge of squaring the circle.

Civil War Period (1642–1651 CE)

The onset of the English Civil War in 1642 heralded a shift in Hobbes’s sphere as the royalist cause started faltering by mid-1644. Many royalists sought refuge in Paris during this period, bringing them into Hobbes’s acquaintance. This resurgence of ties with royalists sparked a renewed vigor in Hobbes’s political pursuits. His work “De Cive” was republished and distributed more widely, commencing printing in 1646 through Samuel de Sorbiere and the Elsevier press in Amsterdam. This edition featured a new preface and additional notes addressing objections.

In 1647, Hobbes undertook the role of a mathematical instructor for Charles, Prince of Wales, who had arrived in Paris from Jersey around July. This association endured until 1648, when Charles departed for Holland.

Interactions with the exiled royalists influenced Hobbes to craft “Leviathan,” outlining his theory of civil government in response to the political turmoil engendered by the war. In this seminal work, Hobbes likened the State to a behemoth—a collective entity formed by individuals to address human needs but vulnerable to dissolution due to internal strife spurred by human passions. The concluding section grappled with the question of whether a subject retains the right to switch allegiance when a former sovereign’s ability to protect is irretrievably lost.

Throughout the composition of “Leviathan,” Hobbes resided in or around Paris. In 1647, a severe illness debilitated him for six months, but upon recovery, he resumed his literary endeavor and completed “Leviathan” by 1650. Concurrently, a translation of “De Cive” was underway; scholars debate whether Hobbes himself executed this translation.

In 1650, a pirated edition of “The Elements of Law, Natural and Politic” surfaced, divided into two volumes: “Human Nature, or the Fundamental Elements of Policie,” and “De corpore politico, or the Elements of Law, Moral and Politick.”

By 1651, the translated version of “De Cive” was published under the title “Philosophical Rudiments concerning Government and Society.” Meanwhile, the printing of “Leviathan” reached its conclusion, releasing in mid-1651. Its iconic title-page engraving depicted a towering crowned giant composed of tiny human figures, wielding a sword and crozier. The impact of this work was immediate, elevating Hobbes to both acclaim and criticism, making him the subject of fervent debate.

The publication severed Hobbes’s ties with the exiled royalists, potentially saving him from peril. His secularist ideals angered Anglicans and French Catholics alike. Seeking refuge, Hobbes appealed to the revolutionary English government for protection, returning to London in winter 1651. Following his submission to the Council of State, he retired into private life in Fetter Lane.

Later life

In 1658, Hobbes released the conclusive segment of his philosophical system, “De Homine,” which predominantly delved into an intricate theory of vision. While this treatise lightly touched on subjects previously explored in “Human Nature” and “Leviathan,” its core emphasis lay in the intricate exploration of visual perception. Simultaneously, Hobbes stirred controversy with published writings on mathematics, particularly geometry, while continuing to produce philosophical works.

Following the Restoration, Hobbes gained renewed attention; “Hobbism” became synonymous with all that reputable society deemed worthy of condemnation. Charles II, Hobbes’s former pupil, acknowledged him and summoned him to court, bestowing upon him a pension of £100.

In 1666, during a period when the House of Commons introduced a bill against atheism and profanity, the king played a pivotal role in shielding Hobbes. Concerned about being labeled a heretic, Hobbes resorted to burning potentially incriminating documents while studying the actual heresy laws. His findings were initially revealed in three brief Dialogues appended as an addition to his Latin translation of “Leviathan,” published in Amsterdam in 1668. In these dialogues, Hobbes aimed to argue that, with the dissolution of the High Court of Commission, no heresy court remained to hold him accountable. He asserted that nothing in “Leviathan” opposed the Nicene Creed, the benchmark for heresy.

The bill’s consequence was that Hobbes could no longer publish in England on matters concerning human conduct. The 1668 edition of his works was printed in Amsterdam due to his inability to obtain a censor’s license for publication in England. Several writings remained unpublished until after his demise, including “Behemoth: the History of the Causes of the Civil Wars of England and of the Counsels and Artifices by which they were carried on from the year 1640 to the year 1662.” Despite impediments imposed by adversaries, Hobbes’s reputation overseas remained formidable.

The latter years of Hobbes’s life were spent, for four or five years, at the Chatsworth House estate of his patron, William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Devonshire. His association with the Cavendish family dated back to 1608 when he initially tutored an earlier William Cavendish. Following Hobbes’s passing, many of his manuscripts were discovered at Chatsworth House.

In his final creative endeavors, Hobbes penned an autobiography in Latin verse in 1672. Additionally, his translation of four books from the Odyssey into English verse in 1673 preceded a complete translation of both the Iliad and Odyssey in 1675, characterized by what was described as “rugged” English rhymes.

Death

In October 1679, Hobbes was afflicted by a bladder disorder followed by a paralytic stroke. He passed away on December 4, 1679, at the age of 91, while residing at Hardwick Hall, the estate belonging to the Cavendish family.

Reportedly, his final words, spoken in his last conscious moments, were “A great leap in the dark.” Following his demise, Hobbes’s remains were laid to rest in St John the Baptist’s Church, Ault Hucknall, situated in Derbyshire.

Political Theory

Influenced by contemporary scientific concepts, Hobbes intended his political theory to mirror a quasi-geometrical system, wherein conclusions naturally stemmed from the established premises. The core practical assertion of Hobbes’s political ideology asserts that a state or society cannot attain security without being under the control of an absolute sovereign. Consequently, Hobbes contended that no individual could possess property rights against the sovereign, allowing the sovereign to appropriate the possessions of its subjects without their consent. This viewpoint gained particular significance in the 1630s, coinciding with Charles I’s attempts to raise revenues without the Parliament’s consent, and thus, without the consent of his subjects.

Hobbes vehemently opposed one of Aristotle’s renowned theses in politics, rejecting the notion that humans are inherently suited for life within a polis and only fulfill their true nature when participating as citizens. Moreover, Hobbes’s mechanistic comprehension of nature extended into the social and political spheres, positioning him as a precursor to the concept of ‘social structure.’

Leviathan

In “Leviathan,” Hobbes meticulously lays out his doctrine regarding the establishment of states, legitimate governments, and the formulation of an objective science of morality. A significant portion of the book is dedicated to underscoring the imperative need for a robust central authority to avert the perils of discord and civil strife.

Rooted in a mechanistic comprehension of human nature and their passions, Hobbes theorizes about life devoid of governance, a condition he terms the “state of nature.” In this state, every individual possesses an unbridled right or license to all things in the world. According to Hobbes, this unrestrained freedom would precipitate a “war of all against all” (bellum omnium contra omnes). He articulates one of the most renowned passages in English philosophy, elucidating the natural state of humankind in the absence of a political community:

“In such condition, there is no place for industry; because the fruit thereof is uncertain: and consequently no culture of the earth; no navigation, nor use of the commodities that may be imported by sea; no commodious building; no instruments of moving, and removing, such things as require much force; no knowledge of the face of the earth; no account of time; no arts; no letters; no society; and which is worst of all, continual fear, and danger of violent death; and the life of man, solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.”

In such a state, people are plagued by the constant dread of death, lacking both the necessities for comfortable living and the hope of procuring them. Consequently, to evade this dire condition, individuals accede to a social contract, establishing a civil society. Hobbes contends that society comprises a populace and a supreme authority, to whom individuals relinquish certain rights for the sake of protection. The power wielded by this authority is absolute, as it emanates from individuals surrendering their own sovereign power for safeguarding. Thus, the individuals are the architects of all decisions executed by the sovereign. Hobbes asserts that those who claim injury from the sovereign are, in essence, indicting themselves since they are the authors of the sovereign’s authority.

Hobbes doesn’t advocate for the separation of powers; instead, he asserts that the sovereign should oversee civil, military, judicial, ecclesiastical powers, and even the language itself.

Religious Views

Hobbes’s religious perspectives remain a subject of debate, encompassing a wide spectrum of attributions, ranging from atheism to Orthodox Christianity. In “The Elements of Law,” Hobbes presented a cosmological argument affirming the existence of God, asserting God as “the first cause of all causes.”

Contemporaries such as Bramhall accused Hobbes of atheistic inclinations due to teachings that seemingly implied atheism. This accusation held considerable weight, prompting Hobbes to vehemently defend himself, acknowledging the grave defamation that terms like “atheism” and “impiety” bore. Scholars, including Richard Tuck and J.G.A. Pocock, have delved into Hobbes’s religious views, yet considerable disagreement persists regarding the precise nature of his unconventional beliefs.

During Hobbes’s era, the term “atheist” was often applied liberally, encompassing individuals who believed in God but held views contrary to divine providence or other beliefs inconsistent with orthodox Christianity. Hobbes, in this broader sense, took stances that contradicted prevailing church teachings. For instance, he staunchly argued against the existence of incorporeal substances, contending that everything, even human thoughts, as well as God, heaven, and hell, comprised corporeal matter in motion. Hobbes suggested that while Scripture acknowledged spirits, it never explicitly described them as incorporeal, in line with Tertullian’s views. He, like John Locke, maintained that genuine revelation wouldn’t conflict with human reason and experience. Nevertheless, he advocated for the acceptance of revelation and its interpretations akin to adhering to sovereign commands, aiming to avert conflict.

During his time in Venice, Hobbes encountered Fulgenzio Micanzio, a confidant of Paolo Sarpi. Sarpi had written against the papacy’s claims to temporal power following the Interdict of Pope Paul V against Venice. Both Sarpi and Micanzio posited that God sanctioned human nature, advocating for the autonomy of the state in temporal matters. When Hobbes returned to England, William Cavendish corresponded with Micanzio and Sarpi, and Hobbes translated Sarpi’s Italian letters, disseminating them within the Duke’s circle.

His Works

1602: Latin translation of Euripides’ Medea (lost).
1620: “A Discourse of Tacitus”, “A Discourse of Rome”, and “A Discourse of Laws.” Published in The Horae Subsecivae: Observation and Discourses.
1626: “De Mirabilis Pecci, Being the Wonders of the Peak in Darby-shire” (published in 1636) – a poem on the Seven Wonders of the Peak.
1629: Eight Books of the Peloponnese Warre, translation with an Introduction of Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War.
1630: A Short Tract on First Principles.
1637: A Briefe of the Art of Rhetorique (also known as The Whole Art of Rhetoric).
1639: Tractatus opticus II (also known as Latin Optical Manuscript).
1640: Elements of Law, Natural and Politic (initially circulated only in handwritten copies; first printed edition in 1650).
1641: Objectiones ad Cartesii Meditationes de Prima Philosophia – 3rd series of Objections.
1642: Elementorum Philosophiae Sectio Tertia de Cive (Latin, 1st limited ed.).
1643: De Motu, Loco et Tempore (published in 1973 as Thomas White’s De Mundo Examined).
1644: Part of the “Praefatio to Mersenni Ballistica.”
1646: A Minute or First Draught of the Optiques.
1646: Of Liberty and Necessity (published in 1654).
1647: Elementa Philosophica de Cive (Second expanded edition with a new Preface to the Reader).
1650: Answer to Sir William Davenant’s Preface before Gondibert.
1650: Human Nature: or The fundamental Elements of Policie (includes first thirteen chapters of The Elements of Law, Natural and Politic).
1650: The Elements of Law, Natural and Politic (pirated ed.).
1651: Philosophicall Rudiments concerning Government and Society – English translation of De Cive.
1651: Leviathan, or the Matter, Forme, and Power of a Commonwealth, Ecclesiasticall and Civil.
1654: Of Libertie and Necessitie, a Treatise.
1655: De Corpore (in Latin).
1656: Elements of Philosophy, The First Section, Concerning Body – anonymous English translation of De Corpore.
1656: Six Lessons to the Professor of Mathematics.
1656: The Questions concerning Liberty, Necessity and Chance.
1657: Stigmai, or Marks of the Absurd Geometry, Rural Language, Scottish Church Politics, and Barbarisms of John Wallis.
1658: Elementorum Philosophiae Sectio Secunda De Homine.
1660: Examinatio et emendatio mathematicae hodiernae qualis explicatur in libris Johannis Wallisii.
1661: Dialogus physicus, sive De natura aeris.
1662: Problematica Physica (English translation titled: Seven Philosophical Problems).
1662: Seven Philosophical Problems, and Two Propositions of Geometry.
1662: Mr. Hobbes Considered in his Loyalty, Religion, Reputation, and Manners. By way of Letter to Dr. Wallis – English autobiography.
1666: De Principis & Ratiocinatione Geometrarum.
1666: A Dialogue between a Philosopher and a Student of the Common Laws of England (published in 1681).
1668: Leviathan – Latin translation.
1668: An answer to a book published by Dr. Bramhall, late bishop of Derry; called the Catching of the leviathan. Together with an historical narration concerning heresie, and the punishment thereof.
1671: Three Papers Presented to the Royal Society Against Dr. Wallis.
1671: Rosetum Geometricum, sive Propositiones Aliquot Frustra antehac tentatae. Cum Censura brevi Doctrinae Wallisianae de Motu.
1672: Lux Mathematica. Excussa Collisionibus Johannis Wallisii.
1673: English translation of Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey.
1674: Principia et Problemata Aliquot Geometrica Antè Desperata, Nunc breviter Explicata & Demonstrata.
1678: Decameron Physiologicum: Or, Ten Dialogues of Natural Philosophy.
1679: Thomae Hobbessii Malmesburiensis Vita. Authore seipso – Latin autobiography (translated into English in 1680).
1680: An Historical Narration concerning Heresie, And the Punishment thereof.
1681: Behemoth, or The Long Parliament (first pirated edition: 1679).
1682: Seven Philosophical Problems (English translation of Problematica Physica, 1662).
1682: A Garden of Geometrical Roses (English translation of Rosetum Geometricum, 1671).
1682: Some Principles and Problems in Geometry (English translation of Principia et Problemata, 1674).
1688: Historia Ecclesiastica Carmine Elegiaco Concinnata.

References

Clatterbaugh, Kenneth. The Causation Debate in Modern Philosophy, 1637–1739. Routledge, 2014, p. 69.
Orozco-Echeverri, Sergio H. (2012). “On the Origin of Hobbes’s Conception of Language: The Literary Culture of English Renaissance Humanism”. Revista de Estudios Sociales, 44: 102–112.
“Thomas Hobbes”. Thomas Hobbes (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 2021.
Sorell, Tom (1996). Sorell, Tom (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes. Cambridge University Press, p. 155. doi:10.1017/CCOL0521410193. ISBN 978-0-521-42244-4.
Lloyd, Sharon A.; Sreedhar, Susanne (2022), “Hobbes’s Moral and Political Philosophy”, in Zalta, Edward N.; Nodelman, Uri (eds.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2022 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, retrieved 10 March 2023.
Williams, Garrath. “Hobbes, Thomas: Moral and Political Philosophy”. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 10 March 2023.
Sheldon, Garrett Ward (2003). The History of Political Theory: Ancient Greece to Modern America. Peter Lang, p. 253. ISBN 978-0-8204-2300-5.
Hobbes, Thomas (1679). “Opera Latina”. In Molesworth, William (ed.). Vita carmine expressa. Vol. I. London, p. 86.
Jacobson, Norman; Rogow, Arnold A. (1986). “Thomas Hobbes: Radical in the Service of Reaction”. Political Psychology, W.W. Norton, 8 (3): 469. doi:10.2307/3791051. ISBN 978-0-393-02288-9. ISSN 0162-895X. JSTOR 3791051. LCCN 79644318. OCLC 44544062.
Sommerville, J.P. (1992). Thomas Hobbes: Political Ideas in Historical Context. MacMillan, pp. 256–324. ISBN 978-0-333-49599-5.

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