Mao Zedong: Political Thought

Mao Zedong, a towering figure in 20th-century political history, profoundly shaped not only the trajectory of modern China but also the broader landscape of revolutionary theory and practice. As the founding leader of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) and a key architect of Chinese communism, Mao’s political thought offers a rich and complex tapestry of ideas that have influenced socialist movements worldwide.

Life

Mao Zedong (1893-1976) was a Chinese revolutionary leader and the founding father of the People’s Republic of China (PRC). His life and career were marked by significant contributions to the communist movement in China and his influence on global communism.

Early Life and Education (1893-1920)

Born: December 26, 1893, in Shaoshan, Hunan Province, China.
Mao was raised in a peasant family. He received a traditional Confucian education but was also exposed to Western ideas, particularly during his studies at Hunan First Normal University in Changsha.
During his youth, Mao was influenced by the political turmoil in China and the decline of the Qing Dynasty, leading him to embrace revolutionary ideas.

Early Revolutionary Activities (1920-1927)

In 1921, Mao became one of the founding members of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP).
He began organizing peasant movements in Hunan, advocating for land reform and the rights of the rural poor.
Mao’s early revolutionary activities were influenced by his belief that the peasantry, rather than the urban proletariat, would be the key force in the Chinese Revolution.

The Long March and Rise to Power (1927-1949)

1927: The Chinese Civil War began between the CCP and the Kuomintang (KMT). Mao led the Autumn Harvest Uprising, but it was unsuccessful, forcing him to retreat to the countryside.
1934-1935: Mao led the Long March, a strategic retreat of the CCP forces to evade the KMT. During this arduous journey, Mao emerged as the paramount leader of the CCP.
1949: After years of civil war and Japanese invasion, Mao’s forces defeated the KMT, leading to the establishment of the People’s Republic of China on October 1, 1949, with Mao as its leader.

Leadership of the People’s Republic of China (1949-1976)

Mao implemented radical land reforms and nationalized industry, laying the foundation for socialist transformation in China.
1958-1962: He launched the Great Leap Forward, an ambitious plan to rapidly industrialize China. The campaign, however, led to widespread famine and the deaths of millions.
1966-1976: Mao initiated the Cultural Revolution to reinforce communist ideology and purge perceived enemies within the Party. This period was marked by significant social and political chaos.
Despite the upheavals, Mao remained the central figure in Chinese politics until his death.

Death and Legacy

Died: September 9, 1976, in Beijing.
Mao’s legacy is complex and controversial. He is revered by many in China as a symbol of revolutionary change and national independence, but his policies, particularly the Great Leap Forward and Cultural Revolution, had devastating consequences for millions.
Mao’s thought, or Maoism, continues to influence communist movements worldwide, though it has been largely reinterpreted or rejected in post-Mao China.

Mao Zedong’s impact on China and the world remains profound, shaping the course of 20th-century history.

Major Works

Mao Zedong was a prolific writer and thinker, and his works span a range of genres including political theory, philosophy, military strategy, and poetry. His writings have had a profound impact on Marxist theory, revolutionary movements, and Chinese political thought. Here are some of the key works of Mao Zedong:

“The Red Book” (Quotations from Chairman Mao Tse-tung): First published in 1964. Often referred to as the “Little Red Book,” this collection of Mao’s quotations became an iconic symbol of the Cultural Revolution. It includes selected quotes from Mao’s speeches and writings on various topics, including politics, philosophy, and revolutionary strategy.
“On Contradiction” (1937): This essay is one of Mao’s most important philosophical works, where he elaborates on his dialectical materialist views. It discusses the nature of contradictions in society and their role in driving historical and social change.
“On Practice” (1937): This work complements “On Contradiction” and addresses Mao’s philosophy of knowledge and the relationship between theory and practice. It emphasizes the importance of practical experience in the development of knowledge and understanding.
“The New Democratic Revolution” (1940): This essay outlines Mao’s theory of New Democracy, which proposed a transitional stage between the old feudal society and the future socialist state. It explains the concept of a broad-based coalition of revolutionary classes leading China through national liberation and modernization.
“The Long March” (1935): Mao wrote a series of articles and speeches about the Long March, the epic retreat of the Red Army from southern to northern China. These writings provide insights into Mao’s military strategy and the role of the Long March in the consolidation of his leadership.
“Report on an Investigation of the Peasant Movement in Hunan” (1927): This report is a seminal work in which Mao examines the peasant uprisings in Hunan Province. It highlights the revolutionary potential of the peasantry and argues for land reforms and the importance of rural support in the revolutionary struggle.
“The State and Revolution” (1920): Mao wrote this work while he was involved in early revolutionary activities. It discusses the nature of the state, revolution, and the role of the Communist Party in overthrowing the old regime.
“Speak Bitterness” (1941): This is a collection of speeches and writings from Mao during the time of land reform and agrarian revolution. It focuses on the process of struggle sessions where landlords were publicly criticized and peasants spoke out about their grievances.
“On the Protracted War” (1938): Written during the Second Sino-Japanese War, this work outlines Mao’s strategy for protracted people’s war, emphasizing the importance of rural-based guerrilla warfare and the gradual encirclement of cities.
“The Great Leap Forward” (1958): Mao’s speeches and writings during the Great Leap Forward period, aimed at rapidly industrializing China and collectivizing agriculture. The campaign, however, led to widespread famine and economic disruption.

Poetry and Essays: In addition to his political and theoretical works, Mao was also known for his poetry and essays, which reflect his personal thoughts and experiences. His poetry often dealt with themes of revolution, nature, and Chinese history.

Influence and Legacy: Mao’s writings have had a significant impact on revolutionary theory and practice, both in China and internationally. They have been studied and interpreted in various ways, influencing communist and socialist movements around the world. Mao’s works are integral to understanding his political thought and the historical context of his leadership.

On Contradiction

Mao Zedong’s theory of contradiction is one of the central elements of his philosophical and political thought. He elaborated on this theory in his 1937 essay, “On Contradiction,” where he explored the nature of contradictions and their role in the development of society, politics, and thought.

Key Concepts in Mao’s Theory of Contradiction

Universality of Contradiction: Mao argued that contradiction is universal and present in all processes, phenomena, and objects. He believed that every entity contains internal contradictions that drive change and development. This idea is rooted in dialectical materialism, a philosophy derived from Marxism, which posits that all things are in a constant state of change due to the struggle of opposing forces.
Particularity of Contradiction: While contradiction is universal, Mao also emphasized that contradictions in different processes or contexts have their own particular characteristics. He argued that understanding the specific nature of a contradiction in a given context is crucial for resolving it. For instance, contradictions in a capitalist society differ from those in a socialist society, and contradictions in a backward, semi-feudal society like pre-revolutionary China differ from those in a more developed country.
Principal and Non-Principal Contradictions: Mao introduced the concept of “principal” and “non-principal” contradictions. In any given process, there is a principal contradiction that plays the leading role in determining the development of that process. At different stages of development, different contradictions become principal. For example, during the Chinese Revolution, Mao identified the contradiction between the feudal landlords and the peasantry as the principal contradiction. Once this was resolved, the contradiction between the working class and the bourgeoisie became the principal one.
Contradictions Among the People: Mao distinguished between “antagonistic” contradictions and “non-antagonistic” contradictions. Antagonistic contradictions are between opposing classes and are irreconcilable, such as those between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie. Non-antagonistic contradictions, on the other hand, occur among the people within a socialist society and can be resolved through democratic processes and persuasion. This idea later influenced Mao’s policies during the Cultural Revolution.
Unity and Struggle of Opposites: Mao emphasized that the unity and struggle of opposites are the driving forces of change. He believed that contradictions are not static but dynamic, and the interaction between opposing forces leads to the transformation of things. This process of struggle and resolution of contradictions is what drives historical progress.

Practical Applications

Mao’s theory of contradiction was not just a philosophical concept but also a practical guide for political action. He applied this theory to analyze and guide the Chinese Revolution, emphasizing the importance of identifying and resolving the principal contradiction at each stage of the revolutionary process.

For instance, during the war against Japanese invasion, Mao identified the contradiction between the Chinese nation and Japanese imperialism as the principal contradiction, and he sought to unite all classes in China to resist the invaders. After the establishment of the People’s Republic of China, Mao continued to apply this theory to address contradictions within Chinese society, particularly during the Cultural Revolution.

On Antagonism

Mao Zedong’s views on antagonism are intricately connected to his broader theory of contradiction. Antagonism, in Mao’s thought, refers to the type of contradiction that exists between opposing forces or classes that are fundamentally irreconcilable and cannot coexist without conflict. These antagonistic contradictions are often central to revolutionary struggle and the process of social and political transformation.

Key Aspects of Mao’s Thought on Antagonism

1. Antagonistic vs. Non-Antagonistic Contradictions: Mao distinguished between antagonistic and non-antagonistic contradictions.

Antagonistic contradictions arise between classes or forces with fundamentally opposing interests, such as between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie, or between colonized peoples and imperialist powers. These contradictions are marked by deep conflict and can often only be resolved through struggle, revolution, or even violent confrontation.
Non-antagonistic contradictions occur within a socialist society or among the people themselves. These are contradictions that can be resolved through debate, persuasion, and democratic processes rather than through violent conflict. For example, differences in opinion within the Communist Party or the varying interests of different social groups within a socialist state are non-antagonistic contradictions.

2. Role of Antagonistic Contradictions in Revolution

Mao believed that antagonistic contradictions are the driving force behind revolutions. For example, in pre-revolutionary China, the contradiction between the feudal landlords and the oppressed peasantry was antagonistic. This contradiction could not be resolved through negotiation or reform; it required a revolutionary overthrow of the feudal system.
Similarly, Mao saw the contradiction between the Chinese people and Japanese imperialists during the Second Sino-Japanese War as antagonistic, necessitating a united front to resist and ultimately expel the invaders.

3. Resolution of Antagonistic Contradictions

Mao argued that antagonistic contradictions could only be resolved through struggle, often violent, which leads to the overthrow of one class by another. In the context of the Chinese Revolution, this meant the destruction of the old feudal and capitalist systems and the establishment of a socialist state under the leadership of the working class and the Communist Party.
After the victory of the revolution, Mao believed that some antagonistic contradictions could still persist, especially in the transition to socialism. These needed to be addressed through ongoing class struggle, even within the socialist society.

4. Antagonism in the Context of the Cultural Revolution

During the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976), Mao emphasized the persistence of antagonistic contradictions within socialist China, particularly between the masses and the emerging bureaucratic elites within the Communist Party. He saw these contradictions as evidence that the socialist revolution was incomplete and that continuous revolution was necessary to prevent the restoration of capitalism.
This belief led to widespread purges, social upheaval, and the persecution of those deemed “counter-revolutionaries” or “capitalist roaders.” Mao’s insistence on the presence of antagonistic contradictions within socialism justified the radical actions taken during this period.

Mao Zedong’s concept of antagonism is central to his understanding of social and political struggle. He believed that antagonistic contradictions between opposing classes or social forces are inevitable in any society marked by exploitation and oppression. These contradictions, according to Mao, can only be resolved through revolutionary struggle, leading to the overthrow of the old order and the creation of a new, more just society.

Mao’s views on antagonism had profound implications for his leadership of the Chinese Revolution and his policies during the Cultural Revolution, shaping the course of Chinese history in the 20th century.

Role of Peasantry in Revolution

Mao Zedong’s views on the role of the peasantry in revolution were revolutionary themselves, especially within the context of Marxist theory. While classical Marxism emphasized the urban proletariat as the primary revolutionary force, Mao adapted Marxist ideas to the specific conditions of China, where the peasantry constituted the vast majority of the population. Mao’s theory on the role of the peasantry became a cornerstone of his revolutionary strategy and was crucial in the success of the Chinese Communist Revolution.

Key Aspects of Mao’s Views on the Peasantry

1. The Peasantry as the Main Force in Revolution

Mao argued that in a semi-feudal, semi-colonial society like China, where the industrial working class was small, the peasantry had to be the main force in the revolution. He saw the vast rural population as the only social class capable of leading the struggle against feudalism, imperialism, and the bourgeoisie.
He believed that the peasantry, due to their oppression under the feudal system, had a revolutionary potential that could be harnessed to overthrow the existing order. This was a significant departure from orthodox Marxism, which focused on the proletariat as the leading revolutionary class.

2. Land Reform and Agrarian Revolution

Mao emphasized the need for land reform as a fundamental component of the Chinese Revolution. He believed that redistributing land from landlords to peasants would not only alleviate poverty but also mobilize the peasantry in support of the revolution.
The agrarian revolution, which involved the seizure of land from landlords and its redistribution to landless and poor peasants, was a key tactic used by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) to gain the loyalty and support of the rural masses.

3. The Rural Base and Guerrilla Warfare

Mao developed the strategy of using the countryside as a revolutionary base to encircle and eventually capture the cities. He believed that guerrilla warfare, rooted in rural areas, was the most effective way to fight against the better-armed and more powerful forces of the Kuomintang (KMT) and later the Japanese invaders.
The strategy of “protracted people’s war,” where the revolution would be built from the countryside to the cities, was a key innovation of Mao’s revolutionary theory. This approach allowed the CCP to gradually build strength, win over the peasantry, and eventually take control of the entire country.

4. The Alliance Between Workers and Peasants

While Mao emphasized the leading role of the peasantry, he also stressed the importance of an alliance between the working class and the peasantry. He believed that this alliance was essential for the success of the revolution and the establishment of a socialist state.
In Mao’s vision, the proletariat, although small in number, would provide ideological and organizational leadership, while the peasantry would provide the necessary manpower and support. This alliance was fundamental to the CCP’s strategy during the Chinese Civil War.

5. Mass Mobilization and the Mass Line

Mao’s concept of the “Mass Line” involved closely working with the peasantry, learning from their experiences, and then formulating policies that reflected their needs and aspirations. This approach ensured that the Communist Party remained connected to the people and that the revolution had a broad base of support.
By engaging the peasantry in the revolutionary process, Mao ensured that the Communist Party was seen as a champion of the common people, which was crucial for its legitimacy and success.

Impact and Legacy

Mao’s emphasis on the peasantry reshaped Marxist revolutionary theory and had a profound impact on revolutionary movements in other developing countries where the peasantry played a significant role. His strategies were instrumental in the success of the Chinese Revolution, leading to the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949.

Mao’s ideas on the role of the peasantry also influenced various revolutionary movements in Asia, Africa, and Latin America, where leaders adapted his strategies to local conditions. The focus on rural-based guerrilla warfare and peasant mobilization became a model for many anti-colonial and socialist movements around the world.

However, the implementation of Mao’s ideas also led to significant challenges, particularly during the Great Leap Forward, where attempts to rapidly collectivize agriculture and industrialize the countryside led to widespread famine and suffering. Despite these challenges, Mao’s emphasis on the peasantry remains a defining feature of his revolutionary thought.

On New Democracy

Mao Zedong’s concept of “New Democracy” is a crucial aspect of his revolutionary theory, especially in the context of China’s transition from a semi-feudal, semi-colonial society to a socialist state. Introduced in the 1930s, the idea of New Democracy was designed to address the unique conditions in China and guide the revolutionary process.

Key Aspects of Mao’s New Democracy

1. Definition and Purpose

New Democracy was conceived as a transitional stage between the old feudal and semi-colonial society and a future socialist society. It was intended to create a broad-based, democratic coalition that could lead the country through a period of national liberation and modernization before transitioning to socialism.
The goal was to unite all progressive forces in a common struggle against imperialism, feudalism, and other forms of oppression, creating a new political order that could pave the way for socialism.

2. Four Revolutionary Classes

Mao proposed a coalition of four revolutionary classes to lead the New Democratic state:
- The Working Class: Represented by the industrial proletariat.
- The Peasantry: The largest and most revolutionary class in a predominantly agrarian society.
- The Urban Petty Bourgeoisie: Small business owners and intellectuals who were seen as allies in the revolution.
- The National Bourgeoisie: Capitalists who were anti-imperialist and could be allies in the struggle against foreign domination and feudalism.

3. Anti-Imperialist and Anti-Feudal Goals

The primary objectives of New Democracy were to achieve national independence, end imperialist exploitation, and dismantle the feudal system. The New Democratic government would be tasked with leading a broad-based revolution to address these issues and build a modern, independent, and democratic nation.

4. Political and Economic Reforms

Political Reforms: The New Democratic state would be characterized by a democratic political system with broad participation from various social classes. The Communist Party, while leading the revolution, would work with other revolutionary classes and organizations to govern.
Economic Reforms: Mao proposed land reforms, where land would be redistributed from landlords to peasants. Additionally, the New Democracy would involve a mixed economy where state and private enterprises coexisted, with the state taking a leading role in key sectors.

5. Transition to Socialism

Mao saw New Democracy as a necessary phase that would eventually lead to socialism. After establishing the New Democratic state, the Communist Party would work to consolidate power, address internal contradictions, and gradually transition to a socialist society.
This transition involved further social and economic reforms, including the collectivization of agriculture and the nationalization of industry. Mao believed that New Democracy would create the conditions for a more advanced and mature socialist state.

6. Historical Context and Application

Chinese Revolution: The concept of New Democracy was first articulated in response to the particular conditions in China during the 1930s and 1940s. The CCP’s strategy included building support among the peasantry and other classes through land reform and anti-imperialist campaigns.
Post-Revolutionary China: After the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the period of New Democracy was relatively short. The Communist Party quickly moved to consolidate power and transition towards a socialist system, implementing land reforms, nationalizing industry, and embarking on large-scale social and economic transformations.

Legacy and Impact

Mao’s New Democracy theory was influential in shaping the early years of the People’s Republic of China. It provided a framework for managing the complex social and political realities of a country emerging from centuries of imperialist and feudal domination.

The concept also had broader implications for revolutionary movements in other parts of the world, especially in countries with large peasant populations and colonial histories. Mao’s ideas on New Democracy contributed to the development of revolutionary strategies and theories in various anti-colonial and socialist movements.

On Cultural Revolution

Mao Zedong’s Cultural Revolution, launched in 1966 and lasting until his death in 1976, was a radical and tumultuous period in Chinese history. It aimed to preserve and perpetuate communist ideology by removing capitalist, traditional, and cultural elements from Chinese society and reinforcing Mao’s vision of socialism. The Cultural Revolution had profound and often devastating impacts on Chinese society, politics, and culture.

Key Aspects of Mao’s Cultural Revolution

1. Objective and Ideology

Revolutionary Purity: Mao sought to maintain the revolutionary fervor and purity of the Communist Party by addressing what he perceived as the resurgence of capitalist and revisionist elements within the Party and society. He aimed to prevent the restoration of capitalism and ensure the continuity of socialist principles.
Class Struggle: Mao emphasized the need for ongoing class struggle, even within a socialist society. He believed that contradictions and class struggle continued under socialism and that these needed to be addressed through continuous revolution.

2. Role of the Red Guards

Mobilization: Mao mobilized youth, primarily through the Red Guards, to spearhead the Cultural Revolution. The Red Guards, composed mostly of high school and university students, were encouraged to challenge traditional authority, attack perceived enemies of the revolution, and promote Maoist ideology.
Actions: The Red Guards engaged in mass rallies, public denunciations, and violent attacks against intellectuals, perceived counter-revolutionaries, and traditional cultural symbols. They played a key role in the widespread upheaval and chaos of the Cultural Revolution.

3. Attacks on Traditional Culture

Destruction of the “Four Olds”: The campaign targeted the “Four Olds”—old customs, old culture, old habits, and old ideas. This involved the destruction of historical artifacts, religious symbols, and traditional cultural practices. Temples, art, books, and cultural relics were often vandalized or destroyed.
Cultural Re-education: Traditional and bourgeois cultural practices were denounced as part of a broader effort to impose Maoist values and promote proletarian culture.

4. Political Purges and Struggle Sessions

Purges: The Cultural Revolution saw numerous purges within the Communist Party and government. High-ranking officials, including members of the Communist Party’s leadership, were accused of being counter-revolutionaries, capitalist roaders, or enemies of socialism. Notable figures, including Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping, were purged from positions of power.
Struggle Sessions: Public “struggle sessions” were organized where individuals were publicly humiliated, criticized, and often subjected to physical abuse. These sessions were used to force confessions and renounce alleged counter-revolutionary beliefs.

5. Impact on Society and Economy

Social Upheaval: The Cultural Revolution led to widespread social and political instability. Schools and universities were closed, intellectuals were persecuted, and there was widespread disruption to everyday life.
Economic Disruption: The campaign also caused significant economic disruption, as industrial production and agricultural output were negatively affected by the chaos and political purges. The focus on ideological purity often overshadowed practical economic needs.

6. End and Aftermath

Death of Mao: The Cultural Revolution began to wind down after Mao’s death in September 1976. The arrest of the Gang of Four, a group of radical leaders who had supported Mao’s policies, marked the end of the Cultural Revolution and the beginning of a period of re-evaluation and reform.
Post-Mao Reforms: After Mao’s death, the new leadership under Deng Xiaoping denounced the Cultural Revolution and initiated a series of economic reforms and opening-up policies. The era was characterized by a focus on economic development, modernization, and the restoration of stability.

Legacy

Mao’s Cultural Revolution left a profound and controversial legacy. It is remembered for its extreme social and political upheaval, the persecution of millions, and the severe impact on Chinese culture and education. The period is often criticized for its disregard for human rights and its destructive impact on intellectual and cultural life.

In contemporary China, the Cultural Revolution is officially described as a period of “serious disaster” and “catastrophe,” and it is widely regarded as a time of severe disruption and turmoil. The Chinese government, under the leadership of Deng Xiaoping and his successors, sought to distance itself from the Cultural Revolution’s excesses while focusing on economic development and modernization.

Conclusion

The political thought of Mao Zedong represents a profound and transformative contribution to revolutionary theory and practice, leaving an enduring legacy on both Chinese and global politics. Mao’s innovative adaptations of Marxist theory to the unique conditions of early 20th-century China reshaped the trajectory of Chinese history, guiding the Chinese Communist Party from its revolutionary struggle to the establishment of the People’s Republic of China.

Mao’s emphasis on the role of the peasantry, the concept of New Democracy, and his strategies of protracted people’s war were pivotal in mobilizing vast segments of Chinese society and achieving revolutionary goals. His ideas on contradiction and antagonism provided a framework for understanding social change and political dynamics, influencing the way conflicts and contradictions were managed within and beyond socialist states.

However, Mao’s political thought also led to significant and often contentious outcomes. The Cultural Revolution, while aimed at reinforcing ideological purity and combating perceived revisionism, resulted in widespread social and political upheaval, leaving a complex legacy that continues to provoke debate. The Great Leap Forward, another ambitious initiative, underscored the challenges and consequences of radical economic and social reforms.

In evaluating Mao Zedong’s political thought, it is essential to recognize both its innovative contributions and its controversial impacts. His theories reflect a dynamic interplay between ideology and practice, demonstrating the challenges of implementing revolutionary ideas in the face of historical realities. Mao’s legacy continues to influence revolutionary movements and political thought worldwide, offering valuable lessons on the intersections of theory, leadership, and societal change. Understanding Mao’s political thought is crucial for comprehending the broader context of 20th-century revolutionary history and its ongoing implications in contemporary political discourse.