Indian Political Thought: Kautilya (Chanakya)

Kautilya, renowned for his profound wisdom and knowledge, was a pivotal advisor and counselor to Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of the Mauryan Empire. As the chief architect behind Chandragupta’s ascent to power, Kautilya earned the title of “kingmaker.” He also served as a professor at the University of Takshashila, located near present-day Peshawar in Pakistan. Kautilya was the first to envision the unification of the Indian subcontinent, leading to the creation of the first Indian Empire. His notable works include the Nitishastra, Chanakya Niti, and the Arthashastra. Widely regarded as India’s most illustrious political economist, Kautilya was a true statesman who combined experience with visionary insight.

Arthshastra: its nature and scope

The Arthashastra is an ancient Indian treatise on statecraft, economics, politics, military strategy, and diplomacy. Written by Kautilya (also known as Chanakya), it provides a comprehensive guide to ruling a kingdom and maintaining power. Its name is derived from “Artha,” meaning wealth or success, and “Shastra,” meaning science or treatise, making it essentially the “science of political economy.”

Kautilya’s Arthashastra is pragmatic in its approach, focusing on practical strategies for governance rather than philosophical ideals. It offers insights into governance that range from the management of resources and the conduct of war to the maintenance of law and justice. The work is materialistic in nature, focusing primarily on the well-being and wealth of the state.

Scope of the Arthashastra:

The Arthashastra covers a broad range of topics related to governance and administration. Its scope can be divided into several key areas:

Politics and Administration: The treatise provides detailed guidance on the organization of the state, the structure of governance, and the duties of a king. It defines the role of ministers, administrators, and other officials, while stressing the importance of a strong, centralized government.
Economics: It offers insights into the management of finances, taxes, trade, agriculture, and industry. Kautilya emphasizes the need for a prosperous economy, urging rulers to increase revenue through various means such as land management, mining, and trade regulation.
Law and Justice: The Arthashastra contains extensive advice on legal matters, including civil and criminal laws, judicial procedures, and the punishment of crimes. It promotes justice while also addressing how rulers can maintain order through a well-regulated legal system.
Foreign Policy and Diplomacy: Kautilya provides strategies for dealing with neighboring states, emphasizing diplomacy, alliances, and the balance of power. It advises rulers on when to wage war and when to pursue peace, offering various tactics for diplomacy and negotiation.
Military Strategy and Defense: The treatise also deals with military organization, the importance of espionage, fortifications, and different types of warfare. It outlines strategies for securing borders, defending the kingdom, and expanding territory through conquest.

Contents of the Arthashastra:

The Arthashastra is divided into 15 books or sections (Adhikaras) that cover various aspects of governance and statecraft:

Book I – Concerning the Topic of Training: Deals with the king’s education and personal development.
Book II – The Duties of Government Superintendents: Discusses administrative functions, the management of different departments, and revenue collection.
Book III – Concerning Law: Focuses on civil and criminal laws, justice, and judicial procedures.
Book IV – The Removal of Thorns: Addresses law enforcement, internal security, and criminal justice.
Book V – The Conduct of Courtiers: Outlines the behavior and duties of court officials and the royal household.
Book VI – The Source of Sovereign States: Discusses the fundamental elements of the state.
Book VII – The End of Sixfold Policy: Focuses on foreign policy and diplomacy, including alliances and warfare.
Book VIII – Concerning Vices and Calamities: Deals with crises in governance and how to address them.
Book IX – The Work of an Invader: Details the strategy for conquering enemy territory.
Book X – Relating to War: Explores military tactics, battle formations, and the logistics of war.
Book XI – The Conduct of Corporations: Discusses how guilds and corporations should operate in the state.
Book XII – Concerning a Powerful Enemy: Examines strategies for dealing with powerful adversaries.
Book XIII – Strategic Means to Capture a Fortress: Focuses on siege warfare and methods for capturing fortifications.
Book XIV – Secret Means: Delves into espionage, intelligence gathering, and covert operations.
Book XV – The Plan of a Treatise: Offers a summary and explanation of the various concepts and teachings in the work.

The Arthashastra remains one of the most influential works on governance and statecraft. It is valued for its realistic and pragmatic approach to politics, offering timeless wisdom on leadership, administration, and power dynamics. Its detailed analysis of economics, law, and foreign policy makes it a foundational text in the study of political economy and diplomacy in ancient India.

Types of state

In Kautilya’s Arthashastra, the classification of states is based on their power, structure, and their relationship with other states. Kautilya outlines several types of states in his strategic model, with a focus on how they interact in the context of diplomacy, warfare, and politics. The types of states mentioned are crucial for understanding the dynamics of interstate relations and the balance of power. Here are the key types of states described:

1. Vijigishu (Aggressor or Ambitious King/State)

This is the state or king who seeks to expand his territory by conquering other states.
The Vijigishu is the central figure in Kautilya’s model of foreign policy and aims at becoming a universal ruler.
The Arthashastra provides guidelines for the Vijigishu on how to approach conquest, diplomacy, and alliances.

2. Ari (Enemy State)

The Ari is the immediate rival or adversary of the Vijigishu.
This state stands in opposition to the ambitions of the Vijigishu and may need to be subdued through diplomacy or warfare.
The Arthashastra advises strategies for weakening and ultimately defeating the Ari through direct conflict or by forming alliances with its enemies.

3. Mitra (Ally State)

The Mitra is a state that supports the Vijigishu and is bound through treaties of friendship and mutual assistance.
The Arthashastra stresses the importance of maintaining strong alliances, as allies can provide military or economic support during conflict.
Kautilya also advises caution, as alliances should be based on mutual interests and strategic calculations.

4. Madhyama (Middle State)

The Madhyama is a state that is geographically situated between two hostile states (typically the Vijigishu and the Ari).
This state has sufficient strength to tip the balance in favor of either the Vijigishu or the Ari.
The Arthashastra suggests that the Vijigishu should seek the support of the Madhyama to gain an upper hand against the Ari.

5. Udāsīna (Neutral State)

The Udāsīna is a neutral state that remains uninvolved in conflicts between the Vijigishu and its enemies.
This state may be powerful but prefers not to interfere in the power struggles between other states.
Kautilya advises the Vijigishu to either win the favor of the Udāsīna or ensure that it does not side with enemies.

6. Ari Mitra (Enemy’s Ally)

This is the state that is allied with the Ari (the enemy of the Vijigishu).
The Ari Mitra provides support to the Ari in opposing the expansionist ambitions of the Vijigishu.
The Arthashastra suggests strategies for diplomatically or militarily neutralizing the Ari Mitra.

7. Parshnigraha (State behind the Enemy)

This is a state that is geographically positioned behind the Ari and may support or ally with the Vijigishu to attack the Ari from behind.
The Parshnigraha can be a valuable ally for launching a pincer movement against the enemy.
Kautilya advises the Vijigishu to cultivate good relations with the Parshnigraha as part of a larger strategy to encircle the enemy.

8. Akranda (State that calls for help)

This state is weaker and calls upon the Vijigishu for assistance against a more powerful foe.
The Vijigishu may provide help in return for loyalty or other political or territorial benefits.
Helping an Akranda strengthens the Vijigishu’s influence and reputation, potentially gaining a valuable ally.

9. Atavi (Forest Tribes/States)

The Atavi refers to tribal or forest-dwelling communities and states on the fringes of the established kingdoms.
These states may not have a formal governance structure but could be important allies or enemies in guerrilla warfare.
Kautilya suggests either winning over these groups through diplomacy or suppressing them if they pose a threat.

10. Vassal States

These are subordinate states that have been conquered or otherwise brought under the Vijigishu’s control.
They retain some autonomy but must pay tribute and provide military support when needed.
Kautilya emphasizes the need for the Vijigishu to maintain loyalty and control over vassal states through diplomacy or coercion.

In the Arthashastra, states are categorized based on their power, geographical position, and role in the wider geopolitical context. These classifications help the Vijigishu understand and navigate complex relationships with neighboring states. The work stresses the need for careful diplomacy, strategy, and military prowess to manage interstate relations, maintain power, and expand influence.

The Saptanga Theory

The Saptanga Theory is a crucial part of Kautilya’s Arthashastra, where he outlines the seven fundamental elements (or limbs) that form the structure of a state. These elements, referred to as Saptanga (literally meaning “seven limbs”), are essential for the functioning and stability of any kingdom. Kautilya believed that a well-governed and powerful state must possess all seven of these components, and their effective management is critical to a ruler’s success.

Here is a breakdown of the Saptanga Theory:

1. Swamin (The King)

The Swamin refers to the ruler or the sovereign, who is the head of the state and the central figure in governance.
A good king must be wise, virtuous, and capable of leading his kingdom with fairness and strength.
Kautilya emphasizes that the king’s personal qualities and leadership skills are crucial for the success of the state.
The king should act in the best interest of the state, upholding dharma (righteousness), and ensuring the welfare of his subjects.

2. Amatya (The Ministers)

Amatya refers to the council of ministers and key officials who assist the king in governance.
These ministers are responsible for advising the king on various matters and managing the administration of the state.
Kautilya stresses the importance of selecting capable and loyal ministers who possess integrity, wisdom, and expertise.
Efficient and competent ministers ensure the smooth functioning of the government and help maintain internal stability.

3. Janapada (The Territory and Population)

Janapada represents the land (territory) and its people (population), who form the foundation of the state.
A prosperous and fertile territory with a productive population is essential for the state’s economic and military strength.
Kautilya advises rulers to ensure the well-being of their people through agriculture, trade, and the protection of natural resources.
A state with a satisfied and productive population is more likely to remain stable and loyal to its ruler.

4. Durga (The Fortified Capital)

Durga refers to the fortified city or the capital, which serves as the administrative and military center of the state.
The capital should be well-protected, strategically located, and capable of withstanding attacks.
Fortifications, such as walls, moats, and strong defensive positions, are essential to safeguard the ruler and key officials during times of war.
A strong Durga allows the king to defend his territory and manage the state’s affairs efficiently.

5. Kosha (The Treasury)

Kosha denotes the state’s financial resources and treasury.
A well-managed treasury is vital for the functioning of the state, as it funds the administration, military, and public welfare.
Kautilya emphasizes the importance of generating wealth through taxation, trade, and efficient resource management.
A rich and well-stocked treasury enables the state to respond to crises, wage wars, and undertake developmental projects.

6. Danda (The Military)

Danda refers to the armed forces and law enforcement.
A strong and well-trained military is necessary for the protection of the state from external threats and for maintaining internal law and order.
Kautilya highlights the importance of having a disciplined, loyal, and effective military capable of both defense and expansion.
The concept of Danda also encompasses the use of force to maintain justice and enforce the law within the kingdom.

7. Mitra (The Ally)

Mitra represents the state’s allies and friends.
Alliances are crucial for strengthening the state’s position against common enemies and for maintaining peace and stability.
Kautilya advises the ruler to cultivate strong alliances through diplomacy and strategic cooperation.
Having reliable allies increases the state’s security, both in terms of military support and political influence.

Importance of the Saptanga Theory:

The Saptanga Theory emphasizes that a well-governed state requires the harmonious functioning of all seven limbs.
The ruler must ensure that each element is well-managed, as the strength of the state depends on their interrelationship.
If any one of these elements weakens or falters, the overall stability and power of the state will be compromised.

Interdependence of the Seven Limbs:

Kautilya viewed these seven limbs as interdependent and mutually reinforcing. For instance:

A strong military (Danda) is ineffective without a prosperous territory and population (Janapada), while a wealthy treasury (Kosha) cannot be sustained without proper governance by the ministers (Amatya) and the cooperation of allies (Mitra).
Similarly, a well-fortified capital (Durga) needs financial backing (Kosha) and military strength (Danda) for its protection.

The Saptanga Theory offers a holistic view of statecraft and governance. By ensuring the proper functioning of all seven limbs, a ruler can maintain a stable, prosperous, and powerful state. Kautilya’s theory continues to be regarded as a foundational concept in political science and administration, highlighting the complex interplay of various factors that contribute to the success of a state.

Kautilya’s Mandala theory

Kautilya’s Mandala Theory is one of his most important contributions, focusing on interstate relations and foreign policy during his time. He believed that harmony between neighboring states was unlikely, as states naturally compete for power. His aim was to expand the empire through tough measures, including diplomacy, which he viewed as a strategic tool in a constant state of either ongoing or planned warfare.

The core of Kautilya’s Mandala Theory is captured in the idea: “Your neighbor is your natural enemy, and your neighbor’s neighbor is your friend.” This concept forms the foundation of his foreign policy strategy. The word “Mandala” means “circle” in Sanskrit, and the theory is based on the idea that the closest neighboring state is often a real or potential enemy, while the state next to that neighbor is likely to be a friend. In other words, states further from one’s borders are more likely to be friendly, while nearby states tend to be hostile.

Kautilya also identified the presence of neutral and mediating states in this system. To make this clearer, imagine numbering states in a westward line, starting with your own state. States numbered 1, 3, 5, 7, and so on are likely to be friendly, while states numbered 2, 4, 6, 8, and so on are more likely to be enemies. This simple, linear way of organizing relations can also be visualized in concentric circles, though this is more complex. Kautilya summarized the core principle as: “The state with immediate proximate territory is the natural enemy.”

The Mandala concept outlines circles of friendly and hostile states, with the king and his kingdom at the center. Kautilya identified twelve kings in the vicinity and classified their relationships. The enemies’ neighbors are the king’s friends, and the next circle of states are enemies again. Kautilya stressed the importance of respecting neutral states, which often act as buffers. The king should constantly aim to expand his influence at the center and reduce the power of neighboring rulers. He also advised building alliances with states two degrees away to maintain a balance of power.

Classification of States in the Mandala:

Vijigishu: The would-be conqueror at the center of the Mandala (the king).
Ari: The hostile neighboring state.
Mitra: The friendly state located beyond the hostile neighbor.
Ari Mitra: The enemy’s ally, neighboring the friendly state.
Mitra Mitra: The ally of the friendly state, farther from the center.
Ari Mitra Mitra: The distant ally of the enemy’s ally.
Parshnigraha: The enemy located to the rear of the Vijigishu.
Parshna Mitra: The friend of the enemy in the rear.
Ari Parshna Mitra: The friend of the enemy’s rearward ally.
Parshna Mitra Mitra: The ally of the rearward friend.
Madhyama: A neutral or buffer state between the king and his enemy, which plays a strategic role.
Udasina: A powerful and indifferent state that remains neutral and stronger than both the conqueror and the enemy.

In this system, Vijigishu is the potential conqueror, while Ari represents the immediate enemy. Mitra is the friend, usually the enemy’s enemy, and Parshnigraha is the enemy located behind the conqueror. Madhyama is the buffer state, and Udasina is a neutral but significant power, often beyond immediate proximity.

From a modern perspective, Udasina can be likened to the USA in relation to India, while Madhyama can be compared to Nepal, a buffer state between India and China.

Kautilya’s Six-Fold Policy:

To interact with neighboring states, Kautilya advocated six possible foreign policies:

Coexistence: Living in peace with neighboring states.
Neutrality: Remaining neutral when no immediate threat or advantage is present.
Alliance: Forming alliances to strengthen one’s position.
Double Policy: Using a combination of peace and war with different states.
March: Preparing for war.
War: Engaging in direct conflict when necessary.

To execute these strategies, Kautilya recommended five tactics:

Conciliation: Using diplomacy to win over states.
Gifts and Bribery: Offering rewards or bribes to influence outcomes.
Dissension: Creating divisions within enemy states.
Deceit: Employing deception to achieve goals.
Open Attack: Engaging in warfare directly when required.

Kautilya emphasized that a king should never hesitate to break alliances or treaties that no longer serve his interests. In the Mandala system, the Vijigishu acts as a stabilizing force by asserting dominance, often using his position as a balance of power in the region. Typically, neighboring states are hostile, while states farther away are likely to be allies.

This dynamic framework, combining strategy, diplomacy, and military power, enabled the Vijigishu to expand his influence and reduce the power of neighboring rulers, constantly striving to maintain a favorable balance of power.

Enemies According to Kautilya

Potential enemies, according to Kautilya, were often those to whom a king presented a friendly face. They might currently be allies or neutral, but over time, they were likely to turn into adversaries. This assumption was based on Kautilya’s overarching aim: world conquest, which required the eventual domination of all territories—most of which would resist losing control.

If a neighboring state was too powerful to defeat immediately, Kautilya advised that it was in the king’s best interest to maintain friendly relations with them, at least until they weakened. However, Kautilya did not suggest passively waiting for this to happen. Instead, the king had an active duty to create conditions that would weaken the stronger state. In Kautilya’s view, states always act in their self-interest, and moral obligations carry little to no weight in the realm of diplomacy and warfare.

As he put it, “A neighboring prince possessing the excellences of an enemy is the foe; one in calamity is vulnerable; one without support or with weak support is fit to be exterminated; in the reverse case, fit to be harassed or weakened.” These statements reflect Kautilya’s different categories of enemies, emphasizing that strategic weakening was essential before confrontation.

When Kautilya spoke of exterminating an enemy, he referred specifically to the elimination of the leadership. He believed that enemy soldiers and citizens should be treated well to win them over—and even recruit them. A conqueror who acted benevolently towards a defeated population was more likely to gain their support. On the other hand, ruling despotically would alienate the conquered people, risking their loyalty.

Objectives and Functions of Kautilya’s State

The objective of a state, according to Kautilya, is not only to ensure security but also to promote the welfare of its people. To achieve these goals, he integrated several institutions. The state’s primary objectives are to protect its citizens, safeguard them from natural calamities, and eliminate enemy spies who may pose a threat to the state. Kautilya believed that for a king, the state was everything—without it, a king was nothing. He emphasized that a state is not just a material entity but has a spiritual dimension as well. The state’s responsibilities extend beyond governance and religious management; it must create an inclusive environment free from distinctions of color, creed, or caste.

To accomplish these comprehensive objectives, Kautilya outlined the following functions for the state:

Agriculture: Agriculture is the backbone of the state’s economy. The state should have sufficient cultivated land to meet the food needs of its people, promote plantation, and manage transportation for agricultural products.
Administrative Appointments: A well-functioning administration requires proper appointments, which are the king’s responsibility.
Military Function: The security of the state is a top priority. A strong and integrated military is essential to defend against external threats.
Judicial Function: The judicial system should function effectively to ensure justice, including the punishment of wrongdoers.
Economic Function: The state’s strength is closely tied to its treasury and trade. The state must manage its finances and trade to maintain stability.
Diplomatic Function: Kautilya emphasized diplomacy as part of statecraft. Ambassadors should be appointed based on the behavior of neighboring states to manage external relations.
Industrial Function: The state should develop its industries, ensuring that capital and labor are effectively utilized to drive economic growth.
Luxury: Kautilya acknowledged the role of luxury in the state’s functioning. To maintain security, employees should be appointed to manage resources, preventing wasteful indulgence.
Business Function: Trade and commerce should be regulated by the state, with proper oversight of market activities and accurate measurement systems.
Spiritual Function: Kautilya expected the king to appoint Brahmins and manage the state according to Dharmashastra to protect and uphold Dharma (religion). He believed the state must focus on the spiritual well-being of its people, not just material prosperity.
Social Welfare: The state’s responsibility is not just economic prosperity but social welfare. A prosperous society leads to a prosperous nation. Kautilya famously said, “A king who ensures the availability of grain during famine is a true king.” The state should provide employment to widows, the disabled, and others in need.

Kautilya believed the state should focus on all aspects—religion, economic means, and welfare activities—that influence people’s lives. The state’s role in religion should be to serve and protect its people. For economic progress, Kautilya emphasized agriculture, industry, and trade. Social welfare was also crucial, making the state both secular and welfare-oriented. As Robson noted, “The idea of a welfare state is as old as the history of mankind and predates the concept of the state itself.”

Duties of the kings

According to Kautilya, the king is the foremost and central figure in the state. Without the king, the state becomes dysfunctional, leading to corruption and chaos. He emphasized that the king’s primary role is to protect and serve the people. A king should possess qualities that allow him to uphold religion, ensure economic stability, and manage the affairs of the state. Kautilya stated, “The miseries of the people lie in the king.” He believed that a king should be selfless, always prioritizing the welfare of his people. Kautilya envisioned the king as an extraordinary individual, possessing the virtues of both a saint and a leader, and positioned him at the center of the state’s seven key elements (Saptanga), around which all other organs of the state revolve. The effectiveness of these elements, according to Kautilya, depends on how the king uses them.

Qualifications and Qualities of a King:

The king must be physically, mentally, and intellectually perfect.
He should be punctual and disciplined.
He must have control over his senses.
The king must fulfill the objectives of religion, economy, and governance.

Privileges of the King:

He is the supreme authority in the state.
No taxes can be imposed on him.
He is entitled to unclaimed wealth or treasure.
He is exempt from being called as a witness in court.

These privileges are granted to the king to enable him to fulfill his duties effectively, not for luxury or personal indulgence. Kautilya also imposed social and religious obligations on the king to prevent him from misusing his powers.

The King’s Daily Routine:

Kautilya divided the king’s routine into day and night schedules, focusing on governance, security, and personal well-being.

Day Routine:

Investigating security measures for the protection of the people.
Handling personal matters.
Addressing public grievances and solving disputes.
Reviewing the treasury and providing instructions.
Consulting with ministers and spies.
Recreation and study.
Inspecting the army and weapons.
Discussing strategies with the commander-in-chief.

Night Routine:

Receiving reports from spies and giving instructions.
Attending to personal matters.
Engaging in recreational activities.
Rest and sleep.
Preparing the schedule for the next day.
Consulting with intellectuals.
Performing religious duties.

Kautilya structured the king’s routine around the principles of religion, economy, and governance to ensure efficient administration.

Security of the King:

Kautilya placed great emphasis on the security of the king, outlining several precautions:

The king should always be accompanied by armed guards.
An army should be stationed both inside and outside the palace.
All food served to the king must be inspected.
The king should avoid interacting with suspicious individuals.
Avoid large crowds.
While inspecting the army, the king should remain mounted.
Exercise caution during hunting expeditions.

Succession:

Kautilya’s views on succession were clear and merit-based. He proposed the following order of succession:

The eldest son of the king.
A capable prince, even if not the king’s direct heir.
The most capable son of the king.
The able son of the king’s daughter.
If no male heir is suitable, the king’s daughter.

Although Kautilya supported monarchy, he stressed that the successor must be capable. He did not believe that an incapable prince should inherit the throne simply because of birthright. Ability, rather than lineage, was Kautilya’s primary criterion for kingship.

Position of the King or Absolute Monarchy

In studying Kautilya’s Arthashastra, a contradiction emerges regarding the nature of his political philosophy. Did he advocate for welfare monarchy or absolutism? This question arises because the privileges granted to the king could make him appear absolute or despotic, with little attention to the rights of the citizens. Several aspects suggest the presence of absolutism in Kautilya’s model:

Elements of Absolutism in Kautilya’s Monarchy:

The king holds supreme power.
The king has the authority to create, explain, and enforce laws.
Kautilya does not explicitly address the rights of citizens.
The king’s security is prioritized over the common people’s.
All key appointments in the state are subject to the king’s discretion.
Succession is generally hereditary.
The king is granted numerous privileges, though the specifics of customs and laws are unclear.
The entire administration is accountable to the king.
In wartime, the king’s decisions reflect his absolute control.

Despite these features, Kautilya’s monarchy is not entirely absolute, as it integrates elements of welfare governance. As Robson puts it, “The idea of a welfare state must be as old as mankind and is certainly much older than the state.” Although Kautilya supports a form of absolute monarchy, he does not neglect the welfare of citizens. He stresses that a king should care for his people, stating that if the people are unhappy, the king, too, will suffer. He emphasizes the king’s duty to care for the handicapped and widows and to protect the people from natural calamities. This indicates that Kautilya’s vision was not purely autocratic but also aimed at public welfare.

Checks on the King’s Power:

Religious Check:
Kautilya imposed religious checks on the king to prevent him from indulging in luxury or hoarding wealth. M.V. Krishna Rao writes, “Kautilya’s attitude to religion was secular and not apathetic. As Sen says, Kautilya is not immoral but amoral in his politics; he is not irreligious but unreligious in his politics, and he is prepared to use religious sentiments and institutions for the state’s noble ends.”
Check on Appointments:
The king is not entirely free to appoint ministers. According to the Arthashastra, only individuals of proven virtue and competence can hold positions of authority.
The King is Not Supreme:
The king must adhere to religious duties and is subordinate to saints and priests (purohits). He is expected to honor them with the same respect a student shows his teacher, a son to his father, and a servant to his master.
Shared Objectives Between the King, State, and People:
The king’s objectives are not solely for his benefit but for the welfare of the citizens. When the rights of the people are aligned with those of the king, absolutism is mitigated.
Succession Based on Merit:
While Kautilya recognizes the hereditary nature of succession, he also emphasizes merit. A king should possess qualities such as physical and mental fitness, intelligence, punctuality, and courage. A virtuous king would not be absolute.
Moral Checks:
The king is required to follow moral values and overcome six obstacles: desire, anger, greed, ego, ugliness, and happiness. Only by mastering his senses can the king truly govern effectively.
Spiritual Checks:
While Kautilya is seen as a rational thinker, he believed the consequences of actions must be realized both in the material world and beyond. He advised the king to balance religion, economy, and work in both worlds.
People’s Rights:
Kautilya acknowledges that people, in their anger, may rise against a tyrannical ruler, indicating that his Arthashastra does not endorse absolute monarchy or unchecked rule.
Training of the Successor:
Kautilya emphasized the training of the king’s successor in Dharmashastra, political science, and the Vedas to ensure capable and virtuous leadership, avoiding despotism.
Advice of Ministers:
The king is not entirely independent in decision-making. He consults his ministers before taking action, making him accountable to a group of advisors.
Limited Rights of the King:
While the king can make laws and bestow rights, these must be in accordance with Dharmashastra and established customs. He has the right to punish, but only within religious guidelines, which limits his power.

Kautilya’s king is not an absolute ruler. His powers are checked by religious, moral, and institutional constraints, and his primary responsibility is the welfare of the people. While he holds extensive authority, this authority is not unlimited. Kautilya sought to balance the king’s power with social responsibility, ensuring that his governance leads to the welfare of the people, rather than tyranny. The king’s throne, thus, becomes a symbol of pride, responsibility, and welfare—not absolute despotism.

Amatayas or Council of Minister

Kautilya’s Arthashastra is a significant work, especially in the context of governance. In it, he adopts the principle of Saptanga (seven elements) for administering a state, where the king is the foremost element, followed by the council of ministers. In the sixth chapter of the Arthashastra, titled “Mantri-Yoni” (the Origin of Ministers), Kautilya elaborates on the importance of a council of ministers to assist the king. He views the council as essential for the king, the state, administration, and the welfare of the people. Kautilya advises the king not to undertake any major decisions without the consensus of his council.

The king should appoint ministers based on the needs of the time, situation, and state management. The number of ministers could range from 12 to 20. For handling critical situations, Kautilya suggests that 3 to 4 ministers should be involved in discussions, and at least 2 ministers should participate in any major decision-making process.

In Arthashastra, Kautilya emphasizes the importance of compensating ministers fairly, according to their rank and abilities. He recommends an annual salary of 4,800 panas for ministers of high ability, as this would ensure they can live comfortably and focus on their duties. Providing adequate compensation was essential to prevent corruption, as financial hardship could lead to dishonest behavior.

Qualification of the Amatayas/Ministers

Before outlining his views, Kautilya acknowledges the contributions of saints and educators. He places great emphasis on the king’s experienced advisors, unlike Vishalaksha, who dismisses this notion entirely. Parashara focuses on ministerial loyalty, but Kautilya goes further, outlining a broader set of essential qualities for a minister. He believes that a minister should be intelligent, skilled, courageous, loyal, virtuous, patient, and fearless. Beni Prasad, in describing Kautilya’s ideal minister, notes that “an excellent intellectual foundation, a spotless personal life, sound judgment, a strong sense of duty, and a measure of popularity are necessary qualifications.”

Qualities Kautilya Emphasizes for a Minister:

Autocratic
Socially aware
Intelligent
Skilled
Knowledgeable in language and literature
Strong memory
Effective in management
Patient
Patriotic
Courteous
Courageous
Humble
Stable
Charismatic
Aesthetic sense
Popular
Uninterested in personal gain
Pious
Not greedy
Devout in religious matters

Religious Responsibility:

Ministers and saints, including the royal priest (purohit), must ensure they live virtuous lives and are not misled by the king.

State Security:

Ministers must remain vigilant and carefully deliberate on matters of state security before implementing any decisions.

Unity and Secrecy:

Ministers should avoid conflicts with one another and maintain unity. Additionally, it is crucial to safeguard the secrecy of the council’s operations, including the king’s schedule, security measures, and weaknesses. Leaking such information could be disastrous for the state.

Security of the Successor:

Ministers must not only look after the king and state but also ensure the safety and security of the successor and other members of the royal family.

The Council of Ministers, the second organ in Kautilya’s Saptanga system, plays a key role in advising the king and overseeing the state’s governance. However, this does not mean that the king is merely a figurehead. Kautilya advises the king to appoint spies to monitor the ministers and their activities, ensuring accountability.

Categories of Ministers:

Kautilya divides ministers into three categories based on their abilities and qualities:

First Category: Ministers possessing all of the required qualities.
Second Category: Ministers with three-fourths of the qualities.
Third Category: Ministers with at least half of the necessary qualities.

Functioning of the Council of Ministers:

The authority to convene meetings rests with the king.
A prime minister should be appointed to lead these meetings.
Decisions should be made by majority vote.
The council’s work must remain secretive and unified, and meetings should be held in secure locations to prevent any leaks of confidential information. Breaches in secrecy could jeopardize both the king and the state.

Functions of the Council of Ministers

Kautilya outlines various roles and responsibilities for ministers:

Advisory Role: During meetings, ministers should offer their suggestions using their best intelligence and judgment.
Security of the King: Ministers are responsible for managing the king’s security.
Administrative Role: While the king appoints the administration, the implementation of decisions made by the ministers and the king is considered part of the ministers’ administrative function.

Kautilya rejected the theory of the ‘Divine Origin of the Monarch’. He believed that kings were not representatives of gods but were human beings. However, the king was expected to be more than just an ordinary human; he was the protector of the dharma (moral and social order) of the entire society. The king had to maintain exemplary conduct, with no private life, and all his actions were subject to public scrutiny.

The king was required to follow his raja dharma, which included a deep understanding of the four branches of knowledge. He was also expected to demonstrate Atma Vrata (self-control) by abandoning the ‘six enemies’—kama (lust), krodha (anger), lobha (greed), mana (vanity), mada (arrogance), and harsha (over-excitement).

Kautilya held the rulers to very high standards, in contrast to the more realistic expectations he had for ordinary citizens. The king’s daily routine was highly structured, divided into eight periods (each lasting one and a half hours), with specific tasks assigned to each period.

Kautilya on War

Kautilya did not advocate for the mindset of “Prepare for war, but hope for peace.” Instead, he believed in “Prepare for war, and plan to conquer.” As a political realist, Kautilya assumed that every nation acts to maximize its power and self-interest, rendering moral principles or obligations largely irrelevant in international affairs. He viewed alliances as useful but temporary, lasting only as long as they serve the self-interest of both parties. “An ally,” he noted, “looks to securing his interests in the event of simultaneous calamities and the growth of an enemy’s power.” Whether a kingdom chooses war or peace is determined entirely by self-interest: “War and peace are considered solely from the point of view of profit.”

For Kautilya, alliances are not formed out of goodwill or moral obligation but are maintained because of strength and mutual benefit: “When one has an army, one’s ally remains friendly, or even the enemy becomes friendly.” As Chanakya once said, “There is some self-interest behind every friendship. There is no friendship without self-interests. This is a bitter truth.” Because nations always act in their political, economic, and military self-interest, even times of peace can swiftly turn into times of war, allies into enemies, and enemies into allies.

In international politics, it is “natural” for nations to interact through “dissension and force.” A political realist argues that conflict will always exist in international relations, effectively leading to rule by the strongest. Kautilya boldly claimed that anyone well-versed in his science of politics could conquer the world. “One possessed of personal qualities, though ruling over a small territory, conversant with the science of politics, does conquer the entire earth and never loses.” According to Kautilya, his science of politics brings abundant wealth and details correct strategies for politics and war. With this knowledge, anyone, even those with limited power or resources, can succeed: “By winning over and purchasing men of energy and might, even women, children, the lame, and the blind have conquered the world.”

Kautilya did not see conquest as unjust if it was carried out by a king who fulfilled his duties, ruled according to the law, meted out fair punishment, applied the law equally “to his son and his enemy,” and protected his subjects. Such a king would not only ascend to heaven but also “conquer the earth up to its four ends.” While Kautilya did not speak of glory, he envisioned a form of “greatness” that would come only through social justice and a morally ordered world. A king, “after conquering the world, should enjoy it divided into varnas (social classes) and ashramas (stages of life) according to his duty.”

In his section on foreign policy, Kautilya introduced a surprising concept: “Of war, there is open war, concealed war, and silent war.” Open war is straightforward, and concealed war refers to what we now call guerrilla warfare. Silent war is a subtler form, in which a kingdom publicly appears to be at peace with another while secretly employing agents and spies to assassinate key leaders, create divisions among ministers and social classes, and spread propaganda and disinformation. Kautilya asserted that “open war is the most righteous type of war,” while silent war involves secret practices and instigations carried out through covert means, emphasizing the importance of secrecy: “The king can prevail only by maintaining secrecy when striking again and again.”

This concept of secret warfare originated with Kautilya. It is important to remember that when Kautilya wrote about war, he was describing the foreign policies of smaller warring states constantly in conflict, such as those in India before the Mauryan Empire. He likely assumed that peaceful empires cannot endure indefinitely and that conflict among smaller states is more common in history. Thus, India does not seek peace but follows Kautilya’s idealism.

Taxation

Kautilya envisioned a ‘dharmic social contract’ between the king and the citizens, where taxes were levied to maintain social order and support state-run welfare programs. If an external threat occurred and the king failed in his duty to protect the citizens, the janapadas (districts) could demand a remission of taxes.

Kautilya understood the crucial role of the tax system in ensuring society’s economic well-being. The defining feature of his tax policy was ‘certainty’—in terms of timing, rate, and mode of payment. This stability in the tax regime was key to promoting active trade and commerce in the Mauryan Empire. In turn, this strengthened the state’s revenue base, enabling it to maintain a large standing army and fund welfare activities.

The state was highly rigorous in tax collection, tapping virtually every possible source. Citizens paid tolls, and farmers (with households as the unit of assessment) paid one-sixth of their produce as land tax. Land censuses were conducted periodically, and land records were meticulously maintained to assess the taxable capacity of each household. Traders were taxed one-tenth of the value of their merchandise. Additional taxes included an entry tax to enter the fort, a tax for using roads and waterways, and fees for obtaining a passport.

Even hermits living in the forests had to part with one-sixth of the grain they collected, as they too required the king’s protection. The service sector was also taxed—actors, dancers, soothsayers, prostitutes, and auctioneers all had to pay taxes. Pilgrims were charged a Yatra Vetna (pilgrimage tax), and citizens had to pay a tax called Pranaya Kriya for acts of benevolence.

System of law

Kautilya did not consider the law to be an expression of the people’s free will. Therefore, sovereignty—the authority to make laws—did not rest with the citizens. Laws were derived from four primary sources: dharma (sacred law), vihara (evidence), charita (history and custom), and rajas asana (edicts of the king). In cases of conflict among these sources, dharma was considered supreme, while the hierarchy of the other laws depended on the specific circumstances.

The rajas asana defined the relationships between the three main social groups—the citizen, the association, and the state. While the constitutional rules at the state level were set by the rajas asana, the rules for associations were determined by their members. Members of each association also decided on their collective choices and operational rules. However, the state enacted laws to protect individual members from the tyranny of the majority within these associations.

The Arthashastra outlines a comprehensive system of civil, criminal, and mercantile law. It codifies various legal procedures, including those for interrogation, torture, and trial; the rights of the accused; what constitutes permissible evidence; procedures for autopsy in cases of suspicious death; definitions of defamation and the process for claiming damages; and criteria for valid and invalid contracts.

Bureaucracy

Kautilya established a vast and intricate bureaucratic network to manage the Mauryan Empire, reflecting its highly centralized nature. The bureaucracy was divided into thirty departments, each headed by an Adhyaksha (Chief), with clearly defined reporting relationships.

Kautilya recognized the importance of the state in providing public goods to strengthen trade and commerce. The bureaucracy played a key role in ensuring the provision of three essential public goods: a quality control system, a standardized currency, and a uniform system of weights and measures. The concept of quality control was revolutionary for its time, indicating the presence of an active trading sector with discerning domestic and international buyers. Merchandise had to bear the Abhigyan Mudra (state stamp) in singular vermillion as a mark of quality, and counterfeiting was severely punished.

Bureaucrats were given fixed salaries and were also eligible for state-subsidized housing. This reflects Kautilya’s deep understanding of governance, as, in later centuries, officials in other empires were often expected to compensate themselves by retaining a portion of the revenue collected from the people (a kind of ad valorem compensation). Such an arrangement incentivized officials to extract as much as possible from taxpayers since their tenure was not hereditary. With his experience as a Chief Minister, Kautilya likely understood the dangers of this practice and instead instituted a fixed-pay structure for the bureaucracy.

Kautilya recognized the challenges of managing a large bureaucracy, particularly the principal-agent problem, where agents (officials) might act in their own interests rather than those of the state. He addressed this issue through three key measures: strict adherence to standard operating procedures (SOPs), the use of spies and intelligence organizations, and the decentralization of authority.

SOPs minimized opportunities for bureaucrats to interpret rules subjectively, with superiors closely monitoring their performance. However, this close monitoring likely incurred significant transaction costs, so it was supplemented by an intelligence organization that kept an eye on corrupt practices among officials. The exploits of spies in catching corrupt officials were widely publicized, deterring misconduct.

Decentralization was another check on bureaucratic power, involving polycentric political arrangements that empowered local guilds. Bureaucrats had to contend with these local power centers, which were well aware of royal edicts and could prevent officials from substituting their own agendas for the king’s orders.

Interestingly, Kautilya did not rely on ideology to discipline the bureaucracy. He likely understood that if a bureaucrat was already violating the SOPs, they were acting against their own dharma (duty).

Conclusion

Kautilya defeated Alexander of Macedonia and the Nanda King—the most powerful Indian ruler of his time—through a combination of military prowess and political strategy. According to Kautilya, a king must guard against intrigues from both internal and external sources. Internal threats could come from the inner cabinet, autonomous associations or guilds, religious orders, and even from within the king’s own personality (atma-dosa). External threats, on the other hand, were posed by hostile foreign powers.

Kautilya developed an extensive intelligence network that infiltrated virtually every institution and profession, with a particular focus on institutions of mass participation, such as religious organizations. Spies operated under various disguises, including a karateka chhatra (fraudulent disciple), udasthita (recluse), grihapalka (householder), vaidehaka (merchant), tapas (ascetic), satri (classmate), mishra (firebrand), masada (poisoner), and bhikshuni (mendicant woman).

Monks and the sanghas (associations of monks) were also actively used for intelligence gathering. Kautilya even suggested that weapons could be hidden inside idols to assassinate a rival king when he came for worship. This shows that Kautilya did not hesitate to use religious institutions as tools of statecraft. For him, the most critical condition for the practice of dharma was not the institution of religion, but the institution of the state.

Intelligence operations were further strengthened by maintaining a ‘national citizen register’ and a system of passports and visas. This register was kept up to date through regular censuses and the compulsory registration of births and deaths.

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