Determinants of India’s Foreign Policy: Foreign policy refers to the actions and decisions a nation or actor takes regarding its interactions with other nations and actors within the international system. It is a crucial element of international relations, shaping how a country engages with the world and pursues its objectives and interests on the global stage. Foreign policy plays a significant role in influencing relationships between nations and other global actors, often impacting international peace and stability.
India, a nation rich in cultural, religious, and regional diversity, has emerged as a major player in global geopolitics since gaining independence in 1947. Over the years, India has transformed into a key democratic trade partner with a large market. The world has undergone profound changes since India’s independence—from the bipolar rivalry between the US and USSR to a brief period of American dominance, and now, to a world where the US and China are heading toward renewed bipolar competition, masked by illusions of multipolarity.
In this complex global environment, India must carve out a distinct foreign policy identity that balances national interests with moral principles. India’s rise as a global player can be largely attributed to its adaptable and dynamic foreign policy, which has evolved in response to shifting global geopolitical factors and domestic regime changes. While certain aspects of India’s foreign policy have remained consistent, others have shifted, reshaping the country’s position within the international community.
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Historical Background
During British rule in India, colonial authorities often prioritized Great Britain’s national interests, readily involving India in global affairs to strengthen Britain’s position on key issues. Despite India having little to gain from international relations during the early 20th century, it was repeatedly drawn into them to serve British objectives.
The Indian National Congress, after some initial hesitation, established a Department of Foreign Affairs within its organizational structure, allowing the party to take a more thoughtful and defined stance on global issues. This move marked the early stages of India’s foreign policy development. Jawaharlal Nehru, even before the end of colonial rule, began articulating the Congress’ position on critical international matters, independent of the colonial administration. A notable example of this was India’s participation in the San Francisco discussions, which led to the signing of the United Nations Charter after World War II.
As Nehru became India’s interim prime minister toward the end of colonial rule, his foreign policy views became sharper and more assertive. His vision for India’s role in global affairs was clearly outlined in a broadcast on September 7, 1946, where he articulated the core principles that would guide India’s future foreign policy. Nehru sought to align India’s national interests with broader global challenges, such as the end of colonialism, imperialism, and racism, while advocating for non-alignment with power blocs and promoting solidarity among newly independent nations in Asia and Africa. This reflected his aspiration to integrate India’s national interests with the pressing international issues of the time.
Determinants of India’s Foreign Policy
Key factors that have significantly shaped India’s foreign policy over the years include its geography, economic conditions, historical context, cultural heritage, domestic political landscape, ideological principles, regional dynamics, global environment, and military capabilities.
Geography
Geography plays a pivotal role in shaping geopolitics and foreign policy. As the largest country in South Asia, centrally located on the continent, India is influenced by major events across Asia. The Himalayas serve as natural barriers and have a significant impact on India’s relations with neighboring countries like Nepal, Bhutan, and Myanmar. However, India’s foreign policy, particularly its evolving relationship with Nepal, has been influenced by China’s consistent efforts to assert control in the region since 1962. Additionally, India’s strategic position in the Indian Ocean offers a natural advantage. To assert itself as a major global power, maintaining influence over the Indian Ocean is crucial for India.
Population
India is the most populous and youngest nation in the world, positioning itself as a consumer-driven economy, which creates a vast market for global producers and influences international relations. However, its large population also presents challenges such as hunger and poverty, which shape its foreign policy. One area of contention in India’s international relations has been its stance on agricultural subsidies, where it has often clashed with the United States in the World Trade Organization (WTO) over the government’s role in supporting its farmers.
Political System
India’s democratic governance serves as a model for many nations, especially those seeking alternatives to authoritarian regimes. For instance, ASEAN countries, wary of China’s assertiveness, look to India, whose democracy promotes the principle of peaceful coexistence. However, in India’s parliamentary system, state governments often influence foreign policy, particularly during coalition governments. This was evident in the handling of the Sri Lankan Tamil issue and the 2005 US Nuclear Deal.
Economic Development
Economic autonomy is a key factor shaping foreign policy. India opened its markets in 1991, leading to rapid economic growth, which has since attracted global interest. As a major energy consumer, India maintains commercial ties with countries like Turkmenistan, Iran, and Russia. However, the persistent trade imbalance with China remains a significant challenge for India’s foreign relations.
History and Culture
India’s foreign policy is deeply rooted in its historical and cultural legacy. From Kautilya’s vision of a powerful state to the principles of Gandhi and Buddha, these influences shape India’s international relations. India’s diplomatic ties are also shaped by its religious connections with Hindu, Muslim, Christian, and Buddhist-majority nations. Historical experiences, including imperialism, colonialism, and opposition to nuclear weapons, continue to influence India’s foreign policy today.
Regional Environment
Regional dynamics also play a significant role in shaping foreign policy. For example, in 1971, the alliance between China, the US, and Pakistan led India to move closer to Russia. Similarly, the current strengthening of India-US relations is partly a response to China’s rising power. India’s “Look East to Act East” policy, in light of China’s growing influence in ASEAN, highlights India’s increasing role and strength in the region.
Global Environment
With increasing global interconnectedness due to globalization, international forces have become key influences on foreign policy. While India collaborates with the US on environmental issues, it may resist decisions like the US withdrawal from the Paris Agreement, reflecting its commitment to climate action. Similarly, India advocates for a democratic Afghan government to counter terrorism. Since World War II, the global order has shifted, with India actively pushing for reform of the UN Security Council to reflect contemporary geopolitical realities.
Military Power
India ranks as the third-largest military power globally, with a formidable army, fourth in terms of air force strength, and sixth in naval capabilities. Additionally, India is a significant nuclear power and a recognized leader in space exploration. These strengths play a vital role in shaping India’s foreign policy and its strategic influence on the global stage.
In conclusion, while these elements remain central to India’s foreign policy, they continue to evolve. In today’s world, it is crucial to adopt policies that prioritize national interests while adapting to global changes.
Constitutional Principles of India’s Foreign Policy
Article 51 of the Indian Constitution, under the “Directive Principles of State Policy,” outlines several guiding principles aimed at promoting global peace and security. According to this article, the state is directed to:
- Foster international peace and security.
- Maintain just and honorable relations between nations.
- Encourage respect for international law and treaty obligations in dealings among organized peoples.
- Promote the use of arbitration as a means of resolving international disputes.
Basic Principles Governing India’s Foreign Policy
The following are the guiding concepts of Indian foreign policy:
Panchsheel
The Five Principles of Peaceful Co-existence, or Panchsheel, were signed on April 29, 1954, and have since become a cornerstone of India’s bilateral relations with other nations. These five guiding principles of India’s foreign policy are as follows:
- Mutual respect for each other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty.
- Non-aggression towards one another.
- Non-interference in each other’s internal affairs.
- Equality and mutual benefit.
- Peaceful co-existence.
The Policy of Non-alignment
Non-alignment has been a central element of India’s foreign policy. It aims to maintain national independence in international relations by avoiding alignment with any military alliances formed after World War II by the United States or the Soviet Union. Non-alignment is not about neutrality, disengagement, or isolationism; rather, it is a flexible approach that advocates for making independent decisions on global issues based on specific circumstances. This strategy allowed India to avoid military blocs and maintain autonomy. During the tense Cold War era, non-alignment gained significant support from developing nations, as it enabled them to protect their sovereignty while retaining freedom of action.
The anti-colonialist and anti-racial Policy
India’s foreign policy is rooted in the principles that guided its struggle against racism and colonialism during the fight for independence. Having been a victim of both colonialism and imperialism, India sees these ideologies as threats to global peace and security. India firmly believes in the equality of all people and has consistently opposed racial discrimination in any form, making this opposition a key aspect of its foreign policy.
Peaceful Settlement International Disputes
A fundamental element of Indian foreign policy is its steadfast commitment to the peaceful resolution of international conflicts. This principle is enshrined in the Directive Principles of State Policy, the United Nations Charter, and the Indian Constitution. India has actively championed negotiated solutions to various global issues, including the Palestine conflict, boundary disputes with neighboring countries, and other similar matters. Additionally, India played a significant role in efforts to end the Korean War, reflecting its dedication to resolving disputes through diplomacy.
Support for International Law
India places great importance on international law and the principles upheld by the UN, including non-interference in the internal affairs of sovereign states and the equality of all nations. India has played a crucial role in supporting international peace by contributing to the decolonization process and actively participating in UN peacekeeping missions. It has also supported the UN’s disarmament efforts, presenting an ambitious nuclear disarmament program to the organization in 1988. Although this proposal did not gain approval from other UN members, India remains committed to the goal of global disarmament. Additionally, India has advocated for reforms to make the Security Council’s membership more democratic and representative.
Specific Policies of India’s Foreign Policy
Gujral Doctrine
I.K. Gujral, who served as both India’s foreign minister and later its prime minister, introduced the “Gujral Doctrine,” a set of five principles aimed at guiding India’s relations with its immediate neighbors. These principles are as follows:
- Non-reciprocity: India, in its relations with countries like Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal, and Sri Lanka, will not demand reciprocity but will offer what it can in good faith and trust.
- Non-use of territory: No South Asian country should allow its territory to be used for activities against the interests of another country in the region.
- Non-interference: Countries should not interfere in the internal affairs of their neighbors.
- Respect for sovereignty: All South Asian countries must respect each other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty.
- Peaceful resolution of disputes: All disputes between South Asian nations should be resolved through peaceful bilateral negotiations.
Gujral believed that strict adherence to these principles would lead to a fundamental transformation in South Asia’s regional relationships, including improving the challenging relations between India and Pakistan. He envisioned that implementing this doctrine would foster a climate of mutual cooperation, where India’s size and influence would be seen as a positive asset by its neighboring countries.
Krishna doctrine
S. M. Krishna’s approach to foreign policy emphasizes the importance of prioritizing the interests of the Pravasi Bharatiya, or the Indian diaspora. His doctrine suggests that the focus and resources of India’s foreign policy should shift towards the ordinary Indian citizen holding a blue passport, who contributes significantly to inward remittances. While S. M. Krishna may not have formally named a foreign policy theory after himself, he highlighted an often-overlooked aspect of Indian foreign policy: the need for the Indian government to prioritize the protection and well-being of its citizens abroad. He stressed that India must “protect and credibly demonstrate the intention to protect at all costs the lives and well-being of Indian citizens living abroad” and should “never forgive governments, organizations, or individuals who harm Indians.”
From Look East to Act East policy
The Act East Policy, a more proactive evolution of the Look East Policy, was launched by the Indian government in November 2014. It aims to strengthen India’s economic, political, security, and cultural ties with Southeast and East Asia, with the Northeastern Region (NER) serving as a vital gateway. The policy is a diplomatic initiative designed to enhance relations across economic, strategic, and cultural dimensions with the broader Asia-Pacific region.
India has been engaging with this region since 1992, reflecting its growing importance in the country’s foreign relations. The Act East Policy and its predecessor, the Look East Policy, are not separate concepts but rather two phases of India’s ongoing approach toward the Asia-Pacific. A key aspect of the Act East Policy is its reliance on two critical partners: Japan and South Korea.
Look West Policy
When Narendra Modi was elected in 2014, India’s Middle East strategy was already well-established. Instead of shifting directions, his administration chose to build upon the existing framework by reinforcing the “Look West” policy, focusing on three key areas: the Arab Gulf states, Israel, and Iran. India’s relationships with the Arab Gulf states evolved and deepened during the 1970s, while its connections with Iran and Israel are more recent, primarily developing since the 1990s.
India’s foreign policy has traditionally been adaptable, incorporating conflict resolution techniques such as dialogue, discussions, and consultations. The aim has been to sustain positive relations with all significant allies and neighbors, reflecting India’s broader tolerance and diplomatic flexibility.
To achieve self-sufficiency, India must address its internal needs, including its reliance on imported resources. To shape its future and that of the region, India must prioritize strategic planning and develop a foreign service appropriate for a major power. This approach requires considering broader factors that influence its role as a significant global player.
Changing Nature of India’s Foreign Policy
In his 2019 remarks at the 4th Ramnath Goenka Lecture, Dr. S. Jaishankar, the Hon. Minister of External Affairs, presented a comprehensive overview of the evolution of Indian foreign policy by dividing it into six distinct phases, each reflecting the nation’s changing priorities and global posture.
- First Phase (1946–1962): Optimistic Non-Alignment in the Modern Era
This phase was marked by India’s aspiration to maintain strategic independence in the post-colonial world. Under the leadership of Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, India embraced the policy of non-alignment, aiming to stay out of the Cold War blocs while promoting peace and cooperation. This approach reflected India’s optimism about its ability to influence global affairs and establish itself as a moral leader among newly independent nations. - Second Phase (1962–1971): Decade of Realism and Recovery
The humiliating defeat in the 1962 Sino-Indian War was a wake-up call for India, leading to a more pragmatic and realistic approach to foreign policy. During this period, India focused on rebuilding its military capabilities and reassessing its strategic priorities. This phase also saw India strengthening ties with the Soviet Union, driven by the need for security and economic support in a challenging geopolitical environment. - Third Phase (1971–1991): Greater Regional Assertion
The third phase marked India’s increased assertiveness in South Asia, epitomized by its decisive role in the 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War. This period saw India emerging as the dominant power in the region, willing to intervene in its neighbors’ affairs to protect its interests. The phase also witnessed India conducting its first nuclear test in 1974, signaling its intent to be recognized as a significant power in global affairs. - Fourth Phase (1991–1999): Quest for Strategic Autonomy
With the end of the Cold War and the onset of economic liberalization, India sought to redefine its foreign policy to align with the new global order. This phase was characterized by efforts to achieve strategic autonomy, balancing relations with major powers like the United States, Russia, and China. India’s “Look East” policy was also initiated during this period, focusing on strengthening ties with Southeast Asia. - Fifth Phase (2000–2013): India as a Balancing Power
In the early 21st century, India increasingly positioned itself as a balancing power in the international system. This phase saw India deepening its engagement with the United States while maintaining strong ties with Russia and other key global players. India’s growing economic power and its active participation in multilateral forums like BRICS, G20, and the UN further solidified its status as an emerging global power. - Sixth Phase (2014–Present): Energetic Diplomacy
The sixth and current phase, beginning with the Modi administration in 2014, is characterized by a more assertive and energetic approach to diplomacy. Several global developments, including China’s rise as a more assertive global power, have driven India to recalibrate its foreign policy. The Modi government has sought to enhance India’s global standing through proactive engagement with the world, including deepening ties with major powers, expanding its influence in multilateral organizations, and pursuing initiatives like “Act East” and “Neighbourhood First.” This period also reflects India’s growing emphasis on leveraging its diaspora, technology, and economic strength to project power globally.
Since taking office in May 2014, the Narendra Modi government has significantly transformed Indian foreign policy. This transformation is evident in the current intellectual and political discourse, which highlights the administration’s progress in positioning India as a major global player. The Modi government’s approach has been marked by a combination of strategic assertiveness, economic diplomacy, and a reimagining of India’s role in the evolving global order.
Conclusion
Foreign policy refers to the actions and decisions made by a nation or other actors regarding their interactions with other nations and entities within the international system. During the long period of British rule in India, the colonial authorities strategically positioned India at the center of global affairs to further Great Britain’s national interests. Recognizing the importance of having a coherent stance on global issues, the Indian National Congress eventually decided to include a Department of Foreign Affairs within its organizational structure.
As Jawaharlal Nehru assumed the role of India’s interim prime minister towards the end of colonial rule, his foreign policy perspectives became more pronounced. His idealistic vision was articulated in a broadcast on September 7, 1946, where he outlined the fundamental principles that would guide India’s future foreign policy.
Several key determinants have played a critical role in shaping Indian foreign policy over the years, including geography, economy, history, culture, domestic milieu, ideology, regional and global environments, and military power. These guiding principles have withstood the test of time and are embedded in both Indian foreign policy and international law. They include:
- Panchsheel (the five principles of peaceful coexistence),
- Non-alignment,
- Anti-colonialism and anti-racism,
- Peaceful settlement of international conflicts,
- Support for the United Nations and international law, and
- Promotion of a just and equitable world order through foreign economic assistance.
I.K. Gujral, who served as both India’s foreign minister and later as prime minister, articulated a set of five principles known as the Gujral Doctrine, which was designed to guide India’s relations with its immediate neighbors.
S.M. Krishna, during his tenure, emphasized that the focus of India’s foreign policy should shift towards the ordinary Indian citizen, particularly the “Pravasi Bharatiya” (Overseas Indian), who contributes significantly to the country through remittances.
In November 2014, the Indian government launched the Act East Policy, a proactive extension of the Look East Policy. This initiative aims to strengthen economic, political, security, and cultural ties with Southeast and East Asia, with the Northeast Region (NER) of India serving as a crucial gateway.
When Narendra Modi was elected in 2014, the broad outlines of India’s Middle East strategy were already established. Instead of altering the course, the Modi administration reinforced the “Look West” policy, focusing on three key areas: the Arab Gulf states, Israel, and Iran. India’s relationship with the Arab Gulf nations had already begun to evolve and intensify during the 1970s.
Since coming to power in May 2014, the Narendra Modi government has brought significant changes to Indian foreign policy. These transformations are evident in contemporary intellectual and political discussions, reflecting the administration’s efforts to position India as a major global player.
