Concepts in Political Theory: Democracy and Citizenship

Democracy is a system of government where power is derived from the people, and the government operates according to their will. In this system, the relationship between citizens and the government is mutually reinforcing; neither can function effectively without the other. Active and ongoing participation by citizens enhances the quality and effectiveness of democracy, while democracy itself fosters the development of informed and engaged citizens. The interplay between democracy and citizenship reflects a constructive relationship, unlike the antagonistic dynamics often seen in monarchies or dictatorships. As political landscapes and ideologies evolve, it becomes increasingly important to examine and understand the relationship between democracy and citizenship.

Democracy: Conceptual Analysis

Since the time of Aristotle, democracy has been a prominent concept both in theory and practice. Its widespread appeal is such that even the most authoritarian leaders may claim to be democrats. At its core, democracy is defined as a government by the people, where the governance is shaped and operated according to the will of the citizens, who hold control over their rulers.

The term “democracy” originates from the Greek word “demokratia,” which combines “demos” (people) and “kratos” (power or rule). Etymologically, it signifies “the power of the people” or “rule by the people.”

Democracy as a theory and practice began to take shape in 5th century BC Greece, and since then, it has evolved significantly in both concept and implementation. Broadly speaking, democracy means rule by the people or power residing with the people. It is a system where laws, policies, leadership, and major decisions are made either directly or indirectly by the populace. Scholars from various eras and political contexts have offered different definitions of democracy, reflecting its diverse interpretations and applications.

Abraham Lincoln – “Democracy is for the people, by the people and of the people”. This is the most popular definition of democracy.

Prof. Seely– Democracy is a government in which everyone has a share.

Dr John Hirst’s “Democracy: A democracy is a society in which the citizens are sovereign and control the government.”

Bryce– Democracy is a form of government in which the ruling power of a state is largely vested not only in any particular class or class but in the members of the community as a whole.

C.F. Strong– By democracy we mean a system of government in which the majority of members of a political community participate through a method of representation. It ensures that the government is ultimately responsible for its action toward that majority.

There is no single, universally accepted definition of democracy that fits all political systems at all times. However, a common thread in most definitions is that democracy signifies rule by the people. Over time, several definitional questions have arisen, such as: What exactly constitutes “all the people”? Is political power shared equally among everyone?

In ancient Greece, often regarded as the cradle of democracy, “all the people” did not truly include everyone. Women, slaves, criminals, and non-taxpayers were excluded from participating in the policy-making process. In modern contexts, majority rule is typically based on numerical counts.

Despite its imperfections, democracy is widely regarded as the best form of government among those currently in practice. Beyond the quantitative aspect of majority rule, democracy is founded on qualitative principles such as individual liberty and rights. It is a system where power and civic responsibility are exercised by all adult citizens, either directly or through their freely elected representatives.

Characteristics of Democracy

Democracy is a universal concept but varies widely in practice. It lacks a fixed definition, specific nature, or uniform procedure. Its effectiveness and implementation are influenced by the socio-political and economic context of its citizens. Consequently, the characteristics of democracy can differ significantly across political systems. Key characteristics of democracy include:

• Importance of Public Opinion: Democracy values the role of public opinion in shaping policy and governance.
• Popular Sovereignty: The ultimate power resides with the people, who have the authority to make decisions about their government.
• Political Equality: All citizens have equal rights to participate in political processes, such as voting and running for office.
• Majority Rule: Decisions are made based on the majority vote, reflecting the will of the greater number of people.
• Representative Government: Citizens elect representatives to make decisions and govern on their behalf.
• Peaceful Transfer of Power: Leadership changes occur without violence or upheaval, ensuring stability and continuity.
• Limited Government: The government’s powers are restricted by laws and a constitution to prevent abuse.
• Political Accountability: Elected officials are accountable to the public and must answer for their actions and decisions.
• Rule of Law: All individuals and institutions, including the government, are subject to and accountable under the law.
• Supremacy of the Constitution: The constitution is the highest legal authority, guiding and constraining governmental actions.
• Citizen Rights and Liberty: Individuals enjoy fundamental rights and freedoms protected by the government.
• Independent Judiciary: Courts operate independently from the executive and legislative branches, ensuring fair and unbiased legal proceedings.
• Decentralization of Power: Authority is distributed across various levels of government to enhance responsiveness and local governance.
• Organized Opposition: Political opposition is structured and allowed, providing a check on power and fostering democratic debate.

Types of Democracy

Based on the mode of participation of people in the process of government and sources of political power democracy may broadly be classified into the following categories.

Direct democracy

Direct democracy, also known as pure democracy, is a system where citizens engage directly in the policy-making process of their government. In ancient Athens, all eligible citizens participated in decision-making. However, citizenship was limited to adult males who had completed military training, excluding women and slaves from such rights.

In contemporary times, Switzerland practices direct democracy in some of its cantons. Swiss citizens gather in Landsgemeinde (Cantonal Assemblies) to make decisions. There are three primary methods of direct democracy:

1. Referendum: A vote by the electorate on a specific proposal or law.
2. Initiative: A process allowing citizens to propose new laws or amendments to existing ones.
3. Recall: A mechanism enabling voters to remove elected officials from office before their term ends.

Recently, scholars have compared Panchayati Raj Institutions in India to direct democracy. They draw parallels between local bodies like the Palli Sabha and Gram Sabha and Switzerland’s Landsgemeinde, noting their role in enabling direct citizen participation in local governance.

Representative Democracy

This form of democracy, commonly referred to as Indirect Democracy, is practiced in most countries. In an indirect democracy, citizens participate in the policy-making process through their elected representatives, who act on their behalf.

Recently, scholars have identified several nuanced models of democracy from a qualitative perspective. These include:

• Constitutional Democracy: A system where government operates according to a constitution that limits and defines its powers.
• Monitory Democracy: Focuses on mechanisms for monitoring and controlling government actions to ensure accountability.
• Participatory Democracy: Emphasizes active involvement of citizens in decision-making processes beyond just voting.
• Pluralist Democracy: Highlights the role of diverse interest groups in influencing policy and governance.
• Elite Democracy: Suggests that political power is concentrated in the hands of a small, elite group.

Approaches to Democracy

Democracy is a process so it’s dynamic. It can fit any political system and can be interpreted from different angles. All democrats focus on people’s participation and the common good. There are two popular approaches to democracy 1) Liberal Approach and 2) the Marxist Approach.

Liberal Approach- The liberals consider the individual to be the centre of the state system and the state exists for the sake of the individual. For them, the individual is the end and the state is the means. The philosophy of democracy entirely lies in providing maximum freedom to the individual. The state which provides more freedom and more liberty to the individual is considered to be more democratic.

According to John Locke, “the state had to ensure the safety of the life, liberty and property of the individual”. The liberal theory has been developed in three phases and each phase has a different name. These are 1) Classical Liberal theory 2) Elitist Theory 3) Pluralist theory.

Classical Liberal Theory of Democracy

This theory posits that safeguarding individual rights and liberties is the primary role of the state. Individuals have the right to resist or even revolt against the state if it fails to uphold these rights. Prominent advocates of this theory include John Locke, Rousseau, J.S. Mill, Montesquieu, and Bentham. Locke and Rousseau, through their social contract theory, argue that government is based on mutual consent and thus has limited authority. Montesquieu supported the principle of separation of powers to ensure decentralization and prevent the concentration of power. Utilitarians like Mill and Bentham stress the importance of public participation in governance, asserting that the government should prioritize “the greatest good for the greatest number.”

Key Features:

1. Central Focus on Individuals: Individuals are at the core of democratic principles.
2. Protection of Rights and Liberties: The primary aim of democracy is to protect individual rights and liberties.
3. Constitutional and Limited Government: The government operates within a constitutional framework, with limited powers and accountability to the people.
4. Consent of the Governed: The legitimacy of government is based on the consent of the people.

Elite Theory of Democracy

This theory focuses on political inequality and the unequal distribution of political power, contrasting sharply with the liberal theory, which emphasizes rule of law and majority rule. It argues that a dominant minority holds power over the majority. Key proponents of this theory include Vilfredo Pareto, Gaetano Mosca, Robert Michels, and C. Wright Mills, all of whom acknowledge the existence of unequal political power in society.

Pareto, for example, explores the intellectual and psychological foundations of elite rule. He distinguishes between the governing elite and the non-governing elite and introduces the concept of elite circulation, suggesting that power is not static but shifts among various groups over time.

The pluralist Theory of Democracy

In contrast to the elitist perspective on democracy, the pluralist view argues that power is shared and distributed among different groups and organizations representing a variety of interests.

Key Elements of Pluralism:

• Power is divided and distributed across multiple sectors.
• The principles of separation of powers and checks and balances help prevent the concentration of power, reducing the risk of abuse or the rise of dictatorship.
• Sovereignty is not exclusively held by the state or any single organization or group.

Marxist Theory of Democracy

Marxists approach democracy from a distinct perspective, criticizing the classical notion of democracy as a “bourgeois democracy,” which they regard as false and deceptive. While they do not reject democracy, they redefine it as a social system rooted in certain values rather than merely a political system or process. Marxists assert that their version of democracy is more genuine than that of liberals. They agree that democracy is based on majority rule, noting that the majority in society consists of the proletariat, or the working class. In non-Marxist societies, they argue, power is held by the bourgeoisie, or capitalists. Marxian democracy emphasizes not only political equality but also economic and social equality, claiming their form of democracy is the true version, while bourgeois democracy is a façade.

Key Elements of Marxian Democracy:

• Democracy is seen as a continuously evolving process.
• As a political system, democracy serves specific interests.

Citizenship

A state is a human organization, with population being its central element. A person residing within a state, who enjoys rights guaranteed by the state and owes allegiance to it, is called a citizen. Citizenship encompasses both rights and responsibilities. The idea of citizenship dates back to ancient Greek philosophers, who distinguished between a citizen and a mere resident. In ancient Greece, citizenship was narrowly defined, limited to property owners and taxpayers, excluding women and slaves.

The term “citizen” originates from the Latin word for city. In earlier times, the state was synonymous with the city, and those living in cities were known as citizens. However, citizenship extended beyond mere residency; it formalized the legal relationship between an individual and the state, granting specific rights and imposing certain duties. In modern times, citizenship has become closely associated with nationalism. During the Middle Ages in Europe, the concept of national citizenship largely disappeared, replaced by feudal systems of rights and obligations.

In the medieval period, citizenship was linked to state protection, as absolute states sought to impose authority over diverse populations. This passive understanding of citizenship, where individuals relied on the state for security, aligned with the views of social contract theorists like Hobbes and Locke, who argued that the sovereign’s primary role was to protect life and property. This notion of citizenship was challenged by the French Revolution of 1789, when “The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen” redefined the citizen as a free and autonomous individual. Modern citizenship strives to balance freedom and equality, addressing inequalities such as caste, class, and gender through affirmative action.

The concept of citizenship consists of three main elements:

1. Legal status, defined by civil, political, and social rights.
2. The role of citizens as political agents, actively participating in political institutions.
3. Citizenship as membership in a political community.

Citizenship represents a person’s legal status as a member of a sovereign state or nation, granting civil and political rights. It establishes a bond between an individual and a country, where the individual owes allegiance and receives protection in return. However, Marxists argue that citizenship is a myth, as true equality cannot exist in a capitalist society.

T H Marshall has defined Citizenship as a “status bestowed on those who are full members of a community. All who possess the status are equal with respect to the rights and duties with which the status is endowed.”

A person can be recognized or granted citizenship on a number of bases. Usually, citizenship based on circumstances of birth is automatic, but an application may be required.

How to acquire Citizenship?

Citizenship can be acquired or lost under certain conditions. In some cases, citizenship is automatically granted at birth, while in others, a person may voluntarily give up citizenship in one country to acquire it in another. The first type is known as natural citizenship, and the second as naturalized citizenship.

Natural citizenship is acquired at birth, following one of three principles:

1. Jus sanguinis (right of blood): Citizenship is determined by a person’s parentage. For example, children of Indian citizens have the right to Indian citizenship, known as citizenship by descent.
2. Jus soli (right of the soil): Citizenship is determined by the place of birth. A child born in the United States, for instance, has the right to U.S. citizenship.
3. Jus matrimonii (right of marriage): Some countries grant citizenship through marriage, as seen in countries like Canada and the United Kingdom.

Naturalized citizenship allows a person to become a citizen based on various criteria established by the state, such as residency, language proficiency, or employment.

Countries may adopt different systems of citizenship. Single citizenship means that an individual can only hold citizenship in one country at a time, while dual citizenship allows a person to hold citizenship in two countries simultaneously.

Citizenship and Democracy

Population is a fundamental element of a state. When individuals within the population are granted rights, fulfill their duties, and show allegiance to the state, they become citizens, forming what is known as civil society. In a democracy, civil society not only follows government rules but also plays a role in regulating and holding the government accountable. Citizens are a crucial component of both social and political communities, and their active participation is key to the quality and success of democracy. An engaged and informed citizenry leads to a responsible and accountable government.

The relationship between citizens and democracy is reciprocal and interdependent. A strong civil society enhances the quality of democracy, just as a healthy democracy fosters an active and informed citizenry. Democracy relies on citizens’ participation in the policy-making process, and it is the citizens who serve as the foundation, guide, and overseer of democracy.

The relationship between citizens and democracy is multifaceted, ongoing, and mutually reinforcing, much like the connection between soil and plants. Just as the quality of soil supports plant growth and plants, in turn, preserve the soil’s fertility, citizens and democracy nourish and sustain each other. Without engaged citizens, democracy cannot thrive, and without a functioning democracy, citizens’ rights and freedoms are at risk. This relationship can be understood in several key ways:

a. The State as Protector of Life and Liberty: From Aristotle to the social contract theorists, the state’s primary role has been seen as the protection of individual life and property. The state is responsible for creating conditions where individuals can develop fully, while balancing natural rights like life and liberty. In the pre-state era, individuals had unrestricted liberty; the state now ensures a structured freedom within the law, safeguarding the rights of all citizens.

b. The State Promotes Human Rights: Every individual has the right to live without fear or discrimination, forming the basis of human rights. The state not only protects life and liberty but also fosters an environment where citizens can lead fulfilling lives. It is the state’s duty to eliminate discrimination, protect citizens from social ills, and ensure that basic needs are met. Thus, the state grants legal protection to certain rights, ensuring that people of all ages, sexes, races, and backgrounds are treated fairly.

c. Respect for Public Opinion: Democracy is grounded in popular sovereignty, with public opinion at its core. Public opinion shapes the formation of government, its functions, and even the transfer of power. Government actions should reflect the will of the people, and the state must respect the free expression of public opinion without suppression.

d. The State’s Democratic Obligations: Under the social contract theory, individuals relinquish some sovereignty to the state, obligating the state to care for its citizens, especially in times of need. Over time, revolutions and social progress have increased the state’s obligations. Dr. Justice A.S. Anand, former Chairperson of the National Human Rights Commission, emphasized that the state is responsible for ensuring that everyone has access to adequate food, education, and the highest standards of physical and mental health.

The state’s obligations include:

• Promoting the greatest good for the greatest number.
• Maintaining law and order.
• Protecting against foreign aggression.
• Advancing democracy and political justice.
• Implementing social welfare measures.
• Fostering economic growth.
• Encouraging harmony among diverse groups.
• Reducing inequality in all forms.
• Supporting political participation.

Citizen Obligation to State

The role of citizens in any political system is crucial. As members of the political, social, economic, and cultural systems, citizens shape the quality of democracy. Just as the quality of a product depends on its raw materials, the quality of democracy depends entirely on the quality of its citizens and civil society.

Active Political Participation: Political thinkers like J.S. Mill and Aristotle believed that individuals could reach their full potential by actively participating in the political community. Jean-Jacques Rousseau argued that people are more likely to accept laws they helped create, which also fosters a sense of community. From Aristotle to John Dewey, political scientists have emphasized that political participation is essential for a functioning government and a safeguard against tyranny, as it ensures governance through collective wisdom.

Participation in democracy is often seen as voting in elections, but it goes beyond that. Democracy is government by the people, and citizens’ involvement extends beyond just voting. It encompasses a wide range of activities through which individuals express their views and influence decisions that impact their lives. According to the North American Review, lack of participation can lead to “political ills” like corruption and dishonesty, as politicians are not held accountable. Countries with mandatory voting have seen less voter apathy and greater political engagement. Public participation promotes transparency, openness in government, and a sense of ownership over development decisions, programs, and projects, encouraging citizens to engage in the decision-making processes that affect their communities.

Other Civic Responsibilities: Citizens in any political system have obligations to the state and must take on various responsibilities as active members of society. These civic duties include:

• Loyalty to the state.
• Respecting the constitution and laws.
• Political resistance when necessary.
• Paying taxes.
• Participating in the political process.
• Protecting public property.
• Defending the state and preventing crime.
• Knowing one’s rights and duties.

Conclusion

The concepts of democracy and citizenship, as well as their interrelationship, have undergone significant changes since the days of Greek and Roman civilizations. While the Greek model was based on exclusion, today’s focus is on inclusion. Democracy is no longer seen solely as a political process; it has evolved into a way of life. Citizens are at the heart of democracy, and their active participation is essential for its success. Both the state and citizens have mutual obligations to one another.

In recent times, citizenship has gained greater significance due to various political developments. Modern social movements have not only sought to include previously excluded groups into the framework of citizenship but also to expand the scope of equal rights. However, despite these efforts, the concept of citizenship remains complex and often carries elements of ambivalence.