Liberty, or its synonym freedom, is one of the most debated and discussed concepts in political science. It has been an ideal for which countless individuals have sacrificed their lives. For many, liberty carries a deeply romantic connotation—something to be pursued at any cost, never to be surrendered, regardless of the circumstances. Historically, liberty is a relatively modern concept. In the Greek city-states, there was no clear notion of liberty, and Athenian ideals showed little concern for slaves. This chapter will explore the various dimensions of liberty, its different forms, and the key factors necessary to safeguard it.
Table of Contents
Meaning of Liberty
Defining liberty in a precise and universally accepted way is challenging, as political philosophers have interpreted it differently over time. Liberty can be seen as the quality that enables individuals to exercise their rights and freedoms, allowing them to live with equality. The term “liberty” comes from the Latin word “liber,” meaning free or self-reliant. It is a fundamental concept for individual growth and development. Throughout history, numerous wars and revolutions have been fought to defeat the enemies of liberty.
Liberty refers to an individual’s unhindered freedom to act according to their will without external restrictions. However, absolute freedom can lead to the exploitation of weaker groups by stronger ones. Therefore, in addition to negative liberty—the absence of constraints—positive liberty, which ensures equal opportunities for all, is also essential for a just society.
Liberty encompasses various dimensions, each necessary for the full emancipation of individuals. These include civil, political, economic, and national liberty, among others. Safeguarding liberty requires measures such as proper education, constant vigilance, and the protection of fundamental rights. Democracy and liberty are deeply interconnected; liberty cannot thrive without democracy. Moreover, national liberty must be secured as a foundation for exercising all other forms of liberty.
Liberty, or freedom, is considered one of the most vital aspects of political philosophy. It has long been regarded as a central goal of liberalism, and the liberal school of thought has consistently worked to protect and promote it. Freedom, however, is also recognized as a universal principle, valued not only by liberals and idealists but also by the Marxist school of thought. While various schools agree on the importance of freedom, they differ in their views on how it can be achieved.
Some ideologies, such as authoritarianism, absolutism, and systems based on slavery, have argued that submission to authority is the path for the common person to realize freedom within society. However, advocates of liberty have consistently challenged this notion of elite dominance. Throughout history, revolutionary struggles against despotic rulers and foreign regimes have been inspired by the ideal of liberty. The concept of liberty is also deeply intertwined with the idea of equality. In various freedom movements, such as peasant revolts or independence struggles, those facing oppression have fought for equality and justice, grounded in the principle of universal human equality.
Nature of Liberty
Liberty is a concept that captivates everyone, as human life is unimaginable without it. We may explore the relationship between liberty and human existence by examining freedom both as (a) a quality inherent in human beings and (b) a condition of human life.
Freedom is often regarded as an essential human quality, distinguishing humans from other species. Unlike animals, birds, and insects, which primarily struggle for survival, human beings are seen as capable of freedom. Humans differ from other species in that they pursue higher aims beyond mere survival. While animals are bound and controlled by nature, humans have learned to harness the forces of nature to their advantage. Through scientific knowledge and understanding of natural laws, human beings have developed freedom as a defining characteristic, using it to advance human welfare.
The nature of liberty becomes clearer when viewed as a condition in which individuals face no constraints. Constraints can be both internal and external, but in political discourse, we typically focus on external restrictions. In this sense, liberty is often understood as the absence of state interference in people’s lives. Many believe that liberty means living without any restraints on individual freedom. However, such an unrestricted view of liberty can be harmful to the state’s survival. True liberty exists within a conducive environment that fosters the growth of all individuals while being regulated by established laws and social principles.
Concept of Positive and Negative Liberty
In modern times, the concepts of negative liberty and positive liberty have been widely discussed by scholars in the West. Advocates of negative liberty include thinkers such as John Locke, Jeremy Bentham, Thomas Jefferson, Edmund Burke, Adam Smith, J.S. Mill, Isaiah Berlin, Robert Nozick, and Milton Friedman. They define negative liberty as the absence of external constraints. According to Isaiah Berlin, liberty involves doing what one desires without interference from others. In his influential essay, “Two Concepts of Liberty,” Berlin distinguishes between negative and positive liberty. Negative liberty concerns the private sphere of an individual’s life, where one is free to act without external restraints. Positive liberty, on the other hand, involves having the power and resources necessary to realize one’s potential within the structural limitations of society.
Humans, being rational beings, view liberty as an essential condition of life. This perspective emphasizes that liberty allows individuals to use reason and judgment to determine what is best for themselves and the society they live in. To achieve this, people require an environment free from unnecessary constraints. Negative liberty, therefore, suggests that human behavior should not be limited, and restrictions on individual freedom should be removed. Proponents of positive liberty, such as Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, J.S. Mill, and the Libertarian Party, argue for minimizing laws, making only those that are necessary and practical, thus ensuring a limited legal framework.
However, it is not always feasible for individuals to be free from all external constraints. There are situations where a person may be unable to act as they wish due to factors like illness or pain, which hinder their ability to conduct their affairs. This perspective suggests that humans are not only rational but also emotional beings. Positive liberty, in this sense, emphasizes freedom from internal constraints and improving conditions so that everyone has an equal opportunity to fulfill their purpose in life. To ensure positive liberty, the state must take appropriate measures. Thinkers like Plato, Immanuel Kant, Epictetus, Karl Marx, and proponents of Christian theology advocate for maintaining strict laws to prevent irrational behavior and promote the common good.
Different Aspects of Liberty
Liberty is often understood as the “absence of restraint,” meaning the state should not interfere with how individuals conduct their lives. This implies that people should be free to live without unnecessary restrictions. However, it is important to recognize that the absence of restraint does not equate to a lack of regulation. In any society, it is essential to regulate individual activities to prevent social conflict. Therefore, the idea of “absence of restraint” refers to the removal of unnecessary constraints that hinder personal growth and development, while allowing for necessary regulations to ensure the smooth functioning of society. Liberty encompasses various dimensions, including natural liberty, civil liberty, and economic liberty, each addressing different facets of freedom.
Natural Liberty
Natural liberty refers to the absence of any form of restraint, where an individual is free to exercise their will without obligations or restrictions. In this state, a person enjoys unrestrained freedom to do as they please. Professor R.N. Gilchrist describes natural liberty as an unscientific and undefined use of freedom, beyond any limitation or responsibility. He argues that it is difficult to arrive at a universally accepted definition of natural liberty because people in society have varying interpretations of it. Thus, according to Gilchrist, natural liberty is often used in an unscientific and unlimited manner, allowing individuals to act without any restrictions.
In this sense, natural liberty resembles a license rather than a true concept of liberty. It implies unregulated freedom, where individuals can behave without any constraints—much like wild animals in the jungle, free to act without any controls. Similarly, natural liberty suggests that human beings should be free to live and act without restraint.
This form of liberty is based on the use of force, where individuals impose their will freely. John Locke, for instance, argued that in the state of nature, people had the right to life, liberty, and property. However, it is politically flawed to accept this thesis entirely, as rights are provided by the state, and without the state, there can be no rights. Without a state, individuals do not possess rights, only the raw power of survival, similar to animals.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, another key proponent of the state of nature, famously said, “Man is born free, but everywhere he is in chains.” This view, however, contrasts with life in the state of nature, where there are no laws or structures, as no state exists. To live in an orderly society, human beings must establish a state that provides the framework to develop their personalities while operating within necessary constraints.
Civil Liberty
Civil liberty is a concept closely tied to the rule of law, emphasizing the protection of individual freedoms within society. As outlined by Ernest Barker in Principles of Social and Political Theory (1951), civil liberty can be categorized into three main aspects: (a) physical freedom from injury, pain, or threats to one’s life and well-being, (b) intellectual freedom, allowing individuals to express their beliefs and thoughts, and (c) freedom of contract, where individuals are free to enter into agreements with mutual benefit.
The first aspect, physical freedom, is largely non-controversial, as it grants individuals the right to move freely without unnecessary restrictions. However, in situations involving public safety or legal concerns, certain limitations may be imposed. No one should suffer physical harm unless prescribed by law or authorized as punishment for unlawful acts.
The second aspect, intellectual freedom, encompasses the freedom of speech, a cornerstone of civil liberty championed by figures like J.S. Mill. In his 1859 essay On Liberty, Mill argued that freedom of expression is essential for both individual and societal progress. Since humans are naturally inquisitive and seek knowledge, the ability to engage in open discussion fosters intellectual growth. Free expression allows individuals to present new ideas, challenge existing norms, and scrutinize policies introduced by influential institutions. Mill emphasized that even unpopular opinions should be protected, as they contribute to the evolution of society’s understanding.
The third aspect, freedom of contract, allows individuals to enter into agreements for mutual benefit, provided that these contracts do not harm third parties. While this freedom is generally accepted, it can be problematic when one party exploits the other, especially when power imbalances exist. Thinkers like L.T. Hobhouse have argued for limitations on this freedom to prevent exploitation and ensure a degree of equality.
Civil liberty, as defined by these three aspects, must be protected by law. Safeguarding civil liberties is a fundamental feature of liberal democracy, ensuring that individuals can live freely while maintaining a fair and just society.
Political Liberty
While civil liberty pertains to the rights an individual enjoys personally, political liberty refers to the rights a person exercises as a citizen in a society. Political liberty involves the ability to participate in the governance of the state, particularly through voting and influencing societal decisions. It grants individuals the right to elect their government through universal adult suffrage. According to William Blackstone (1723-80), political liberty allows citizens to hold the government accountable and restrain it when it does not act in their interests. In his view, the government was seen as an external authority separate from the people.
However, in modern democracies, where governments are elected by the people themselves, political liberty takes on a more nuanced meaning. It means not only the right to elect a government but also the right to monitor and control its actions. As Ernest Barker discusses in Principles of Social and Political Theory (1951), political liberty in a democratic society allows individuals to participate in elections freely and to engage in public discussions about the government’s conduct. This ability to express views and take part in ongoing deliberation ensures that government policies remain aligned with the needs of the people.
Proponents of political liberty emphasize that citizens have the right to be actively involved in decision-making and freely express their views on public matters. By allowing open discourse on public policy, political liberty helps ensure that governments remain responsive to their citizens and work effectively to address social issues.
However, achieving substantive freedom through political liberty alone can be challenging. Powerful elites often manipulate the political process, using their wealth and influence to sway elections. Similarly, mass media, often controlled by wealthy individuals or corporations, can be used to shape public opinion for personal gain. In this context, political liberty may offer limited practical freedom for ordinary citizens who lack the resources to compete with powerful interests.
Economic Liberty
Economic liberty refers to the right of individuals engaged in productive work, services, or any occupation to freely exercise their economic choices. As noted by Ernest Barker, economic liberty is often intertwined with civil liberty, but it presents unique complexities due to the varied relationships it encompasses, such as those between tenants and landlords, workers and employers, and consumers and traders. Each group has its own interpretation of economic liberty, often leading to conflicting views on its meaning and application.
For instance, one group may advocate for maximum profit and minimal restrictions, while another may prioritize fair wages, reasonable working hours, and affordable housing. These divergent perspectives can create tension in the pursuit of economic liberty, especially when the interests of more powerful groups clash with those of weaker or less privileged groups. It becomes essential to protect the rights of the weaker groups by limiting the power of those who could undermine equality and liberty. Balancing these competing interests is key to maintaining both fairness and freedom in economic relationships.
As R.H. Tawney highlighted in his book Equality (1938), liberty is not limited to civil and political rights; economic rights are equally vital to ensuring equality in society. Safeguarding the economic rights of the less privileged is crucial for upholding the broader principles of liberty. This includes protecting individuals from exploitation and ensuring that their basic economic needs are met.
In the realm of economic liberty, the concepts of positive and negative liberty often come into conflict. Negative liberty, which advocates for minimal interference, may favor the more powerful groups, while positive liberty, which emphasizes enabling conditions for equal opportunity, supports the protection of the weaker sections of society. To truly uphold the ideals of liberty, it is necessary to defend the economic rights of the less powerful, ensuring that liberty is meaningful for all.
National Liberty
National liberty refers to the freedom and independence of a nation or country, standing in opposition to imperialism and colonialism. It emphasizes a state’s right to self-determination and self-governance, free from any form of external control. National sovereignty, another term for national liberty, indicates that a nation is free from foreign rule and adheres to the principles of autonomy.
The importance of national liberty is reflected in the words inscribed on the Central Secretariat building in New Delhi, India: “Liberty does not descend upon a person. People must raise themselves to liberty. Liberty is a blessing that must be earned to be enjoyed.” Just as individuals possess the right to freedom, nations too are entitled to liberty. A nation free from both internal and external dominance embodies the ideals of national liberty.
Historically, many third-world countries were subjected to colonialism by imperial powers, which denied them national liberty. Countries like India waged long struggles against these imperial forces to gain independence and reclaim their sovereignty. Once liberated, a nation has the right to govern itself according to the needs of its citizens. National liberty extends not only to internal social, political, and economic matters but also to foreign affairs, international relations, and policies.
National liberty also carries the principle that no nation can unjustly impose its will or force on another. Before 1947, India lacked national liberty and was ruled by British imperialists. The Indian freedom struggle, marked by immense sacrifices, ultimately led to India becoming a sovereign nation.
However, national liberty is not absolute. It comes with limitations, such as the principle that powerful nations cannot dominate or control weaker ones. National liberty should be used to foster cooperation and mutual respect among nations, upholding the sovereignty of all.
Religious Liberty
Religion plays a significant role in shaping an individual’s life. Many states uphold the principle of religious freedom, ensuring that the religious beliefs of various communities remain free from interference. Secular states maintain neutrality on religious matters, allowing citizens to exercise their religious rights without obstruction. In contrast, dictatorial regimes often deny religious liberty, leaving various communities and groups unable to freely practice or express their beliefs.
In the modern world, religion is widely regarded as a personal matter, free from state intervention. A government cannot impose a single religion on all its citizens or interfere with the beliefs of different communities. In communist states, citizens are typically granted the right to follow the religion of their choice, though they may not be permitted to publicly preach their beliefs.
Nevertheless, it is also crucial to regulate religious practices in society. No religion should be allowed to influence public policy or conflict with the law. In such cases, it becomes necessary for the legislative and judicial branches to take action, ensuring that the religious beliefs of various communities are respected while safeguarding the rule of law and the rights of others. Governments must strike a balance, ensuring that exceptions for genuine religious practices do not infringe upon the rights of other communities.
Personal Liberty
Personal liberty refers to the freedom of an individual to act according to their own will, without undue interference or restraint. F.A. Hayek, a key advocate of personal liberty, defined it as a condition where a person is free to exercise their will without coercion from others or the state. In his view, personal liberty reflects a society in which individuals face minimal restrictions.
Every individual has the right to a private life, free from the interference of others. This includes the freedom to make personal choices, such as what to eat, how to dress, where to go, whom to marry, and whether to have children. In this sense, personal liberty is essential to human growth and development. Proponents like J.S. Mill argue that individuals are sovereign over their own lives, and the state should not interfere in personal matters.
However, some scholars believe that while exercising personal liberty, individuals must also consider the rights and interests of others. No one should have so much freedom that it infringes on the liberty of others in society. Therefore, personal liberty must be enjoyed within the framework of society, respecting the rights of others.
Understanding the balance between personal liberty and social liberty is crucial, ensuring that one person’s freedom does not harm the freedom of others.
Safeguards of Liberty
Liberty is essential for the emancipation of individuals, making it crucial to protect it from any forces that seek to undermine it. Harold J. Laski highlights several key principles for safeguarding liberty:
- Equality Over Privilege: In the realm of liberty, no special privileges should be granted to any segment of society, as true freedom cannot be achieved if certain groups are afforded special provisions.
- Contradiction with Privilege: Freedom and liberty are fundamentally at odds with special privileges; both cannot coexist in a society where some individuals enjoy disproportionate advantages.
- Protection of Weaker Sections: Liberty cannot be fully realized in a society where the rights of the weaker sections are subjugated by the stronger ones.
- State Intervention: At times, it is necessary for the state to intervene to protect and preserve liberty, ensuring that it is not compromised by any external or internal threats.
Given below are some of the important safeguards of liberty which are considered necessary for protecting liberty:
- Proper Education: Liberty must be safeguarded by the people themselves, which can only happen if they are aware of their rights. Proper education is essential for people to fully understand and appreciate freedom. Only with the right knowledge about their rights can liberty be truly protected.
- Eternal Vigilance: As Bryce famously stated, “Eternal vigilance is the price of liberty.” To protect liberty, people must remain alert to any illegitimate actions that threaten to restrict it. Continuous awareness of rights and responsibilities is essential to prevent the loss of freedom.
- Democratic Government: Liberty thrives in a state governed by democracy, where the government is formed by the people and can be replaced by the people if it obstructs their freedoms. In a democratic system, citizens are free to express their opinions and even criticize the government. This is in stark contrast to dictatorships, aristocracies, or monarchies, where citizens are often denied such freedoms, and liberty is at risk.
- Cooperation between State and People: A cooperative relationship between the people and the state is crucial for maintaining liberty. If citizens do not abide by the rules and regulations set forth to protect them, the state will struggle to ensure peace and harmony. For liberty to be preserved from unlawful attacks, the cooperation of the people is essential.
- Separation of Powers: Separation of powers, as proposed by French scholar Montesquieu, is key to protecting liberty. It ensures that the various branches of government—legislative, executive, and judicial—remain independent and fulfill distinct roles. In states where power is separated, democracy is stronger, and liberty is better protected.
- Fundamental Rights
Fundamental rights provide the framework necessary to protect liberty. In a democratic government, the constitution must guarantee these rights to all citizens. Additionally, specific provisions should be in place to safeguard these rights. Scholars have long maintained that rights and freedom are inseparable; one cannot exist without the other. Therefore, the establishment of fundamental rights is vital to preserving liberty. - Rule of Law: According to Harold J. Laski, the rights and freedom of one group should not depend on the desires or happiness of another. The same laws must apply equally to all, with no individual or group being above the law. Thus, the rule of law is more critical for the protection of liberty than the rule of any individual.
- Decentralization of Power: Centralization of power can lead to dictatorship and authoritarianism, both of which endanger liberty. Therefore, power must be decentralized. The executive branch should be spread across the central, state, and local levels to prevent the concentration of authority and protect freedom.
- Independence of the Judiciary: The judiciary plays a crucial role in defending and safeguarding the rights and liberties of the people. For justice to be fair, the judiciary must remain independent and impartial. When anyone’s rights or freedoms are violated, whether by an individual, organization, or the government itself, the judiciary should be a trusted avenue for ensuring justice is served.
Conclusion
Liberty refers to the freedom of individuals, groups, or communities to exercise their rights without obstruction. It is a fundamental condition for personal development, allowing people to act according to their own will. However, in certain cases, state intervention is necessary to address inequalities in society. Therefore, both positive liberty (freedom to act) and negative liberty (freedom from interference) are essential for the full emancipation of individuals in society.
Liberty has multiple dimensions, each crucial for providing comprehensive freedom. These include civil, political, economic, and national liberty. For instance, when India lacked sovereignty, its citizens were unable to fully exercise their other rights or experience true freedom. Thus, national liberty is a prerequisite for realizing the broader aspects of liberty.
For liberty to flourish, people must be educated and guaranteed fundamental rights. Vigilance is also key to ensuring that the government does not infringe upon freedoms. True liberty thrives in a democratic system, where citizens are free to express their views. In contrast, under a dictatorship, people are denied their freedoms, preventing them from enjoying civil, political, or economic liberty. Democracy and liberty are mutually reinforcing, with democracy being the most vital factor in safeguarding freedom.
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