Archaeological Sources

Archaeology is the study of the human past through material remains. These remains can include any objects that people created, modified, or used, ranging from the remnants of grand palaces and temples to small, discarded items like broken pottery. They encompass a variety of things, such as structures, artifacts, bones, seeds, pollen, seals, coins, sculptures, and inscriptions. Through archaeology, we can recover and understand these material traces of the past.

Exploration and Excavation

Archaeology is the science that allows us to systematically excavate the successive layers of ancient mounds to understand the material life of past civilizations. A mound is an elevated landform covering the remains of old habitations, and it can be categorized into different types:

Single-culture Mounds: These represent a single culture throughout, such as the Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture, the Satavahana culture, or the Kushan culture.
Major-culture Mounds: In these mounds, one culture is dominant while others are of secondary importance.
Multi-culture Mounds: These represent several important cultures in succession, sometimes overlapping with one another.

Excavating a mound helps us understand the successive layers of material culture and other aspects of ancient life. Mounds can be excavated either vertically or horizontally:

Vertical Excavation: Involves digging lengthwise to uncover the chronological sequence of cultures, usually confined to a part of the site. This method provides a good chronological sequence of material culture.
Horizontal Excavation: Involves digging the entire mound or a significant portion of it to gain a complete understanding of the site’s culture during a particular period. However, horizontal excavations are expensive and less common, limiting our understanding of material life in many phases of ancient history.

The preservation of ancient remains in excavated mounds varies:

In dry, arid climates (e.g., western Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, and northwestern India), antiquities are often well-preserved.
In moist, humid climates (e.g., the mid-Gangetic plains and deltaic regions), preservation is more challenging, with iron implements corroding and mud structures difficult to detect. Only burnt brick or stone structures in these regions are well-preserved.

Excavations have revealed:

Villages established around 6000 BC in Baluchistan.
Material culture developed in the Gangetic plains during the second millennium BC.
The layout of settlements, types of pottery, housing forms, cereals consumed, and tools and implements used by ancient people.
In southern India, some people buried their dead along with tools, weapons, pottery, and other belongings in graves encircled by large stones, known as megaliths. Excavating these megaliths provides insights into life in the Deccan from the Iron Age onwards.

Dating Methods and Other Analyses:

Dates of mounds and materials are determined using various methods, with radiocarbon dating (Carbon-14 or C14) being the most significant. C14 is a radioactive isotope present in all living organisms, decaying at a uniform rate after the organism’s death. By measuring the loss of C14 content, the age of ancient objects can be determined, though this method is limited to dating objects up to 70,000 years old.
The history of climate and vegetation is known through plant residue examination, especially pollen analysis. This suggests that agriculture was practiced in Rajasthan and Kashmir around 7000–6000 BC.
Metal artifacts are analyzed scientifically to identify the metal’s origin and the stages of metal technology development.
Animal bones are examined to determine domestication and the uses of animals.

Geological and Biological Studies:

Geological studies provide insights into the history of soil and rocks, contributing to our understanding of prehistory.
Biological studies reveal the history of plants and animals, highlighting the interaction between the environment and human activity.

Together with archaeological remains, geological and biological studies are crucial for understanding over 98% of the historical timeline, from the Earth’s origin to human history.

Ethno-archaeology

Ethno-archaeology involves studying the behavior and practices of living communities to interpret archaeological evidence related to past societies. The Indian subcontinent, with its many surviving traditional practices in agriculture, animal husbandry, house building, clothing, and food, serves as a valuable resource for this field. Modern craftspersons, for example, offer insights into the techniques and social organization of ancient artisans.

For instance, the tradition of carnelian bead manufacturing in Khambhat, Gujarat, provides valuable clues about how Harappan beads might have been made and the social structure of the bead makers. By studying modern bead-making techniques, archaeologists can better understand the methods and social dynamics of ancient craftspersons.

Ethno-archaeology also helps fill gaps in historical knowledge. For example, it has enabled archaeologists to make inferences about women’s roles in subsistence and craft-related activities in early societies. Additionally, studying modern hunter-gatherer and shifting cultivator communities can shed light on the lifestyles of people who relied on similar subsistence strategies in the past.

However, it is essential to use ethno-archaeological evidence with caution, recognizing the differences between present-day contexts and those of the past.

Archaeology as a source of history

Archaeology often provides an anonymous history, focusing on cultural processes rather than specific events. It is primarily used to study prehistory and ancient history:

Prehistory refers to the period without written records, where archaeology serves as the sole source of information.
Ancient history relies on written sources, but archaeology still plays a crucial role, especially for periods with non-deciphered records (Proto-history) and continues to provide valuable insights even after the advent of written history.

Unfortunately, once literary sources become available, historians tend to treat archaeology as a secondary, corroborative source. One of the challenges in early Indian history is to adequately integrate archaeological evidence into broader historical narratives. Archaeology often reveals aspects of everyday life that texts overlook or underemphasize. For instance, even with the critical use of Vedic and post-Vedic literary sources for history before the Ashokan period, archaeology remains vital, uncovering innumerable material remains, such as the stone temples in South India and brick monasteries in Eastern India. However, much of this material culture lies buried in mounds scattered across the country.

Archaeology provides crucial information on the history of human settlements and can give specific details about modes of subsistence, such as the food people procured and how they obtained it. It offers insights into the crops people grew, the agricultural tools they used, and the animals they hunted and domesticated. Additionally, archaeology is an excellent source for understanding various aspects of the history of technology, including raw materials, their sources, and the methods used to create artifacts.

Moreover, archaeology helps reconstruct ancient trade routes, networks of exchange, and interactions between communities. While numerous religious texts are available for ancient and early medieval India, relying solely on these texts does not offer a complete picture of religious practices. Material evidence from archaeological sites provides significant contributions in this area.

However, there are challenges in translating archaeological cultures into historical narratives. An archaeological culture does not necessarily correspond to a specific linguistic group, political entity, or social group, such as a lineage, clan, or tribe. One of the most pressing questions is how to explain changes in material culture, particularly pottery traditions, a topic that remains inadequately addressed in the context of ancient India.

Archaeological evidence does not always provide a complete picture of the material culture of ancient people. Artifacts found in archaeological records typically consist of items that were discarded, lost, forgotten, hidden, or abandoned. Not all material traits survive, and the preservation of archaeological evidence depends on various factors, including the nature of the objects and environmental conditions such as soil and climate.

Inorganic materials like stone, clay, and metal objects are more likely to survive in the archaeological record. For instance, while Stone Age people likely used tools made of wood and bone, it is primarily stone tools that have survived in large numbers. Tropical regions, with heavy rains, acidic soils, warm climates, and dense vegetation, are less favorable for preservation. These factors must be considered when assessing archaeological evidence.

Epigraphy

Inscriptions and coins are categorized under the broad field of archaeology and serve as valuable archaeological sources. The study of inscriptions is known as epigraphy, while palaeography is the discipline focused on ancient writing systems used in inscriptions and other historical records.

Inscriptions were typically engraved on various materials such as seals, stone pillars, rocks, copper plates, temple walls, wooden tablets, bricks, or images. In India, the earliest inscriptions were etched on stone. However, by the early centuries of the Christian era, copper plates began to be used for this purpose. Despite this shift, the practice of engraving inscriptions on stone remained prevalent, especially in South India, where numerous inscriptions were recorded on temple walls to serve as permanent records.

Evidence of Early Inscriptions:

Harappan Inscriptions: The Harappan inscriptions, which are yet to be deciphered, appear to be written in a pictographic script, where ideas and objects are represented through pictures.
Oldest Deciphered Inscriptions: The oldest deciphered inscriptions date back to the late 4th century BCE and are written in Brahmi and Kharoshthi scripts. Among these are the inscriptions of the Maurya emperor Ashoka, which were inscribed in various languages and scripts. Most of Ashoka’s inscriptions are in the Prakrit language and Brahmi script (written from left to right), although some were also engraved in the Kharoshthi script, which is written from right to left.
In the fourteenth century AD, Firoz Shah Tughlaq discovered two Ashokan pillar inscriptions, one in Meerut and another at a place called Topra in Haryana. He transported them to Delhi and attempted to have them deciphered by the scholars of his empire, but they were unsuccessful. These inscriptions were first deciphered in 1837 by James Prinsep, a civil servant of the East India Company in Bengal.
Brahmi Script: The Brahmi script was widespread across India, except in the northwestern region. In Pakistan and Afghanistan, Ashokan inscriptions were written using Greek and Aramaic scripts, though Brahmi remained the dominant script until the end of the Gupta period.
Regional Variations: After the seventh century, significant regional variations in the Brahmi script emerged. There is no clear connection between the Harappan script and the Brahmi or Kharoshthi scripts, leaving a gap in our understanding of the evolution of writing in this period.

Evidence of Writing:

Vedic Literature: While there is no direct mention of writing in Vedic literature, references to poetic meters, grammatical and phonetic terms, very large numbers, and complex arithmetical calculations in later Vedic texts suggest to some historians that writing may have been known during that time.
Buddhist Pali Texts: The first clear literary references to writing and written documents appear in Buddhist Pali texts, particularly in the Jatakas and the Vinaya Pitaka.
Panini’s Ashtadhyayi: Panini’s Ashtadhyayi includes the word lipi (meaning script), indicating the existence of writing during his time.
Brahmi Script: The Brahmi script used in Ashoka’s inscriptions appears to be quite developed, suggesting that it had a history of several centuries prior. Recent discoveries from Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka provide direct evidence of the existence of Brahmi in pre-Maurya times, with excavations revealing potsherds bearing short inscriptions that date back to at least the early 4th century BCE.

Both Brahmi and Kharoshthi scripts are considered to be semi-syllabic or semi-alphabetic, standing somewhere between alphabetic and syllabic scripts.

Kharoshthi Script:

Core Area: The Kharoshthi script was primarily used in the northwest region of ancient India, known as Gandhara. The script is prominently featured in Ashoka’s Shahbazgarhi and Mansehra inscriptions.
Usage: Kharoshthi continued to be used in northern India under the Indo-Greek, Indo-Parthian, and Kushana kings. It also appeared in certain records outside Gandhara, including in parts of Central Asia.
Origin and Characteristics: Kharoshthi was written from right to left and is believed to have been derived from the North Semitic Aramaic script.

Brahmi Script:

Writing Direction: Brahmi is written from left to right.
Origin:
The origin of the Brahmi script is debated. Some scholars propose an indigenous origin, while others suggest it was derived from the Aramaic script.
However, the difference in the direction of writing and the forms of letters between Brahmi and Kharoshthi makes a shared origin unlikely.
Evolution and Influence:
Kharoshthi declined and disappeared around the 3rd century CE, while Brahmi became the ancestor of all indigenous scripts in South Asia, as well as those used in parts of Central and Southeast Asia.
Brahmi evolved over time, with its stages often categorized by dynasties, such as Ashokan Brahmi, Kushana Brahmi, and Gupta Brahmi.
By the late 6th century, Gupta Brahmi evolved into the Siddhamatrika or Kutila script, characterized by sharp angles at the lower right-hand corner of each letter.
- After this period, regional variations became more distinct.
- The modern North Indian scripts gradually emerged from Siddhamatrika.
Nagari or Devanagari was standardized by about 1000 CE. An eastern script, known as proto-Bengali or Gaudi, developed between the 10th and 14th centuries.
- From proto-Bengali, the Bengali, Assamese, Oriya, and Maithili scripts emerged in the 14th–15th centuries.
- During the same period, the Sharada script developed in Kashmir and adjacent areas.

Tamil Script:

Early Inscriptions: The earliest inscriptions in the Tamil language are found in rock shelters and caves, particularly around Madurai. These are written in a script known as Tamil-Brahmi, an adaptation of Brahmi for the Tamil language.
Evolution:
Three southern scripts emerged in the early medieval period: Grantha, Tamil, and Vatteluttu. Grantha was used for writing Sanskrit, while Tamil and Vatteluttu were used for writing Tamil.
The Tamil script first appeared in Pallava territory in the 7th century CE.
Modern Telugu and Kannada scripts began to take shape in the 14th–15th centuries, while the Malayalam script evolved from Grantha around the same time.

Bi-Script Inscriptions:

Definition: Ancient Indian inscriptions sometimes include bi-script documents, where the same text is written in two different scripts.
Examples: Most examples come from the northwest and consist of short bi-script Brahmi-Kharoshthi inscriptions.
A notable longer record is an 8th-century Pattadakal pillar inscription of the Chalukya king Kirttivarman II. The language of this inscription is Sanskrit, and it is written in both the North Indian Siddhamatrika script and the local southern proto-Telugu-Kannada script.

Languages of Inscriptions

The earliest Brahmi inscriptions, including those of Ashoka, were written in dialects of Prakrit. From the 1st to the 4th centuries CE, many inscriptions combined both Sanskrit and Prakrit. The first purely Sanskrit inscriptions emerged in the 1st century BCE, with the Junagadh rock inscription of the Western Kshatrapa king Rudradaman being the first long one. By the end of the 3rd century CE, Sanskrit had largely replaced Prakrit as the primary language of inscriptions in northern India.

In the Deccan and South India, Sanskrit inscriptions began appearing alongside Prakrit ones in the late 3rd to early 4th century CE, such as at Nagarjunakonda in Andhra Pradesh. The use of Sanskrit gradually increased during this period. In the 4th and 5th centuries, inscriptions often appeared in a bilingual Sanskrit-Prakrit format or in a mixture of the two languages. Eventually, Prakrit fell out of use, and by the 4th to 6th centuries, Sanskrit became the dominant language for royal inscriptions across India. Subsequently, it became associated with high culture, religious authority, and political power, not only in the Indian subcontinent but also in regions like Southeast Asia.

However, following the Gupta period, there was a significant trend toward the development of regional languages and scripts. From the 9th and 10th centuries, inscriptions began to be composed in regional languages, and even Sanskrit inscriptions started showing influences of local dialects in spellings and vocabulary.

In South India, Tamil inscriptions in the old Tamil language (and the Tamil-Brahmi script) appeared as early as the 2nd century BCE and the early centuries CE. Tamil became prominent in South Indian inscriptions during the Pallava dynasty, with bilingual Tamil-Sanskrit Pallava inscriptions emerging from the 7th century onwards. In these inscriptions, the invocation, genealogical portions, and concluding verses were often in Sanskrit, while the details of the grants were in Tamil. The Chola and Pandya kings also issued Tamil and bilingual Sanskrit-Tamil inscriptions, and hundreds of donative Tamil inscriptions were carved on temple walls across South India in early medieval times.

Kannada inscriptions first appeared in the late 6th to early 7th century CE. From this period onward, Kannada was frequently used in private donative records and some royal grants. There are also bilingual Sanskrit-Kannada inscriptions, including a 12th-century trilingual inscription found at Kurgod in Karnataka, which features Sanskrit, Prakrit, and Kannada.

The earliest Telugu inscriptions date back to the late 6th century, under the early Telugu Chola kings. Over time, many private donative records were written in Telugu. Malayalam inscriptions began to appear around the 15th century.

In modern North Indian languages, Marathi and Oriya inscriptions date back to the 11th century. Inscriptions resembling modern Hindi dialects appear in Madhya Pradesh from the 13th century, and Gujarati inscriptions can be identified from the 15th century.

Classification of inscriptions

Official vs. Private Records:

Official Records: These inscriptions communicate royal orders and decisions concerning social, religious, and administrative matters to officials and the public. Examples include Ashoka’s edicts and royal land grants.
Private Records: These include inscriptions documenting donations made by private individuals or guilds to temples, Buddhist, or Jaina establishments.

Types Based on Content and Purpose:

Commemorative Inscriptions: These inscriptions record specific events or achievements. For instance, Ashoka’s Lumbini pillar inscription commemorates his visit to Buddha’s birthplace. Memorial stones, erected to honor deceased individuals, often feature sculpted scenes or inscriptions. These memorials could honor heroes, women who committed sati, Jaina ascetics who died by starvation, or sailors lost at sea. Some of these stones were objects of worship.
Donative Inscriptions: These inscriptions, often for religious purposes, document gifts such as money, cattle, or land made by kings, princes, artisans, and merchants. They are typically found on shrine walls, railings, gateways, and within caves donated to ascetics. Donative inscriptions also record the installation of religious images and investments for maintaining worship activities.
- Royal Land Grants: Important for understanding ancient India’s land system and administration, these inscriptions record land, revenue, and village grants made to monks, priests, temples, monasteries, vassals, and officials. They are found in various languages, including Prakrit, Sanskrit, Tamil, and Telugu. Early examples include Satavahana and Kshatrapa inscriptions from Nashik, and mid-4th-century Pallava and Shalankayana copper plate grants. One of the earliest copper plate grants from north India is the late 4th-century Kalachala grant of King Ishvararata.
Prashastis: These royal inscriptions, often included in or entirely dedicated to eulogizing their subjects, praise the achievements and attributes of kings and conquerors while overlooking their defeats. Notable examples include the Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela and the Allahabad prashasti of Samudragupta.
Records of Charitable Works: Some inscriptions record the construction of waterworks, wells, and charitable feeding houses by private individuals. For example, the granite rock inscriptions at Junagadh (Girnar) include a 150 CE inscription of Shaka ruler Rudradaman detailing the construction and repairs of the Sudarshana lake, and a 5th-century inscription from the Gupta period describing repairs made after the lake’s banks burst.
Votive Records: These inscriptions, often found on pillars, tablets, temples, or images, reflect the devotion of followers of Buddhism, Jainism, Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and other religions.

Miscellaneous Types:

Labels and Graffiti: These include inscriptions left by pilgrims and travelers, religious formulae, and writings on seals.
Sanskrit Grammar Summaries: Certain inscriptions from Madhya Pradesh provide condensed summaries of Sanskrit grammar.
Footprint Inscriptions: Found across the country, these inscriptions accompany engraved footprints of holy figures, kings, or other notable persons.

Inscriptions as a source of history

Advantages:

Durability: Inscriptions are more enduring than manuscripts, making them a lasting record of historical events.
Contemporaneity: They are usually created at the time of the events they describe, allowing for precise connections to specific times and places.
Detectability of Changes: Modifications or additions to inscriptions are often easily identifiable.
Practical Insight: Unlike literary sources, which often provide theoretical perspectives, inscriptions offer insights into actual activities and practices.

Political History:

Inscriptions are crucial for understanding political history. The geographic spread of a king’s inscriptions often indicates the extent of their political control.
However, the discovery of inscriptions can be random, and not all inscriptions from a king’s reign may be found. Additionally, movable inscriptions are not always found in their original locations.

Geographical and Dynastic Information:

Early royal inscriptions contain limited geographical information, but later inscriptions often include detailed accounts of dynasties and reigns.
Problems with inscriptions include:
Exaggeration of royal achievements.
Confusion arising from genealogies with kings of the same name or contradictory details.
Missing names in genealogies, such as Skandagupta and Ramagupta, who are overlooked in Gupta records.
Conflicting claims between dynasties, such as those between the Gurjara-Pratihara and Rashtrakuta inscriptions regarding territorial conquests.
Cross-checking political details in inscriptions is essential for accuracy.

Administrative and Social Information:

Inscriptions are valuable for understanding political structures, administrative practices, and revenue systems.
They provide rare records of secular land transactions and disputes, offering insights into social and economic conditions. For instance, an inscription from the reign of Chola king Rajaraja III (1231 CE) describes the hardships faced by farmers due to arbitrary levies and compulsory labor, and the subsequent decisions made by local assemblies.

Settlement Patterns and Social Structures:

Inscriptions reveal information about settlement patterns, agrarian relations, and class and caste structures.
They offer dateable information on religious sects, institutions, and practices, including sources of patronage for ancient religious establishments and details about lesser-known sects and cults like the Ajivikas and the yaksha and naga cults.

Art and Architecture:

Inscriptions aid in identifying and dating sculptures and structures, contributing to the study of iconography, art, and architecture.
They are also instrumental in historical geography, with examples such as the identification of ancient Buddhist monastic sites like Kapilvastu through inscribed monastic seals.

Language and Literature:

Inscriptions provide insights into the history of languages and literature, and occasionally mention performing arts. For example:
The 7th-century Kudumiyamalai inscription records musical notes used in classical ragas.
Tamil Nadu inscriptions reference various dance forms, with the pillars of the Nataraja temple at Chidambaram describing dance poses and quoting verses from the Natyashastra.

Numismatics

The study of coins is known as numismatics. In ancient India, currency was issued in the form of metal coins rather than paper. These coins were made from various metals, including copper, silver, gold, and lead. Numerous coin molds made from burnt clay have been discovered, most of which date back to the Kushan period, although their use declined significantly after the Gupta period.

In the absence of a modern banking system, people stored their money in earthenware and brass vessels, keeping them as valuable reserves for emergencies. Many hoards, which include both Indian and foreign coins, such as those from the Roman Empire, have been found across India.

The earliest Indian coins feature only a few symbols, but later coins began to depict figures of kings and deities, along with their names and dates.

History of Indian Coinage

People of the Stone Age did not use currency or coinage and relied on barter for trade. For example, the Harappans had an extensive barter-based trade network. The Rig Veda mentions terms like “nishka” and “nishkagriva” (gold ornaments) and “hiranyapinda” (gold globules), but these were not coins. Later Vedic texts mention terms such as “nishka,” “suvarna,” “shatamana,” and “pada,” which may refer to metal pieces of specific weights rather than actual coins.

The earliest concrete evidence of coinage in the Indian subcontinent dates back to the 6th–5th centuries BCE, coinciding with the rise of states, urbanization, and increased trade. Buddhist texts and the Ashtadhyayi refer to various terms like “kahapana/karshapana,” “nikkha/nishka,” “shatamana,” “pada,” “vimshatika,” “trinshatika,” and “suvanna/suvarna.”

The fundamental unit of weight for Indian coins was the “raktika,” “ratti,” or “rati,” a red-and-black seed of the gunja berry. In South India, coin weights were theoretically based on the “manjadi” and “kalangu” beans. Despite the advent of coinage, barter continued alongside for a long period.

Punch-marked Coins:
The oldest coins in the subcontinent are punch-marked coins, primarily made of silver, with some in copper. They are typically rectangular, occasionally square or round, and often irregular. These coins were made by cutting metal sheets and hammering symbols onto them using dies or punches. Most silver punch-marked coins weighed 32 rattis, or about 56 grains. These coins were found throughout the subcontinent and continued to circulate well into the early centuries CE, particularly in peninsular India.

Punch-marked coins from northern India are categorized into four main types based on weight, punch marks, and circulation area:

Taxila Gandhara type: Northwest, heavy weight standard, single punch type.
Kosala type: Middle Ganga valley, heavy weight standard, multiple punch marks.
Avanti type: Western India, light weight standard, single punch mark.
Magadhan type: Light weight standard, multiple punches.

Changes in coinage patterns reflected political shifts, such as the expansion of the Magadhan empire leading to the dominance of Magadhan punch-marked coins. While these coins generally lack inscriptions, most were likely issued by states. Later periods saw the emergence of city and guild issues, which may have also been practiced during the punch-marked coin era.

Symbols on punch-marked coins include geometric designs, plants, animals, the sun, wheel, mountains, trees, branches, and human figures, some of which may have held religious or political significance. Coins often feature primary and secondary punch marks, with the latter being counterstamps or countermarks added later without heating.

Uninscribed Cast Coins:
Soon after punch-marked coins, uninscribed cast coins made of copper or copper alloys appeared, found throughout the subcontinent except in the far south. These coins were produced by melting metal and pouring it into clay or metal molds. Clay molds have been discovered at many sites, and a bronze mold was found in Iran. The presence of both punch-marked and uninscribed cast coins at some early historical sites suggests their overlapping use.

Uninscribed Die-Struck Coins:
Uninscribed die-struck coins, primarily copper with a few in silver, emerged next. Symbols similar to those on punch-marked coins were struck onto coin blanks using metal dies with carefully carved designs. Minting of these coins likely began around the 4th century BCE, with significant finds at sites such as Taxila and Ujjain.

Die-Struck Indo-Greek Coins:
The 2nd/1st century BCE introduced die-struck Indo-Greek coins, well-executed and mostly silver, with some in copper, billon (silver-copper alloy), nickel, and lead. These coins feature the name and portrait of the issuing ruler, with some depicting rulers aging over time. Jointly issued coins reflect conjoint rule. Bilingual and bi-script coins feature Greek on the obverse and Prakrit in Kharoshthi (rarely Brahmi) on the reverse. The coins of the Shakas, Parthians, and Kshatrapas followed similar patterns.

Kushana Coins:
The Kushanas (1st–4th centuries CE) were the first dynasty to mint large quantities of gold coins, with silver coins being rare. They also issued many low-denomination copper coins, reflecting the expanding money economy. Kushana coins display the king’s figure, name, and title on the obverse and deities from various pantheons on the reverse, with legends in Greek or Kharoshthi.

Local Coins:
Local coins from the 3rd century BCE to the 4th century CE, also known as indigenous, tribal, or janapada coins, provide insight into the history of northern and central India. These coins were mainly cast or die-struck in copper or bronze, with some in silver, lead, and potin. They include issues from chieftains, kings, and non-monarchical states like the Arjunayanas, Uddehikas, Malavas, and Yaudheyas, as well as coins from cities such as Tripuri, Ujjayini, Kaushambi, Vidisha, Airikina, Mahishmati, Madhyamika, Varanasi, and Taxila. Some coins with the term “negama” may represent merchant guilds, and certain coins from Taxila with the legend “pancha-nekame” might have been issued by five guilds jointly.

Satavahana Coins:
In the Deccan, the Satavahana dynasty issued copper and silver coins, along with small-denomination lead and potin coins. Most Satavahana coins were die-struck, with some cast coins. Legends were generally in Prakrit and Brahmi script, while portrait coins used Dravidian language and Brahmi script. Punch-marked coins continued to circulate alongside Satavahana coins.

Ikshvakus:
In the eastern Deccan, the Ikshvakus of the lower Krishna valley (3rd–4th centuries) issued lead coins similar to those of the Satavahanas.

Western Deccan:
In the western Deccan, there was increased demand for silver currency, possibly due to trade. Kshatrapa ruler Nahapana introduced silver currency in the Nashik area. Roman gold coins also flowed into peninsular India in large quantities in the early centuries CE, potentially used for large transactions or as reserves. Local imitations of Roman gold coins have also been found. The western Deccan saw a coexistence of Satavahana, Kshatrapa, punch-marked, and Roman coins, with some currencies from the western Deccan reaching the eastern Deccan.

South India:
In South India, some punch-marked coins identified by their symbols were dynastic issues. Coins found in Bodinaikkanur near Madurai, featuring a double carp fish, were attributed to the Pandya kings. Recent findings include dynastic coins (some with portraits) and legends of the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas. Examples include coins with the legend “Valuti” assigned to the Pandyas, silver coins of a Chera king with the legend “Makkotai,” and coins with “Kuttuvan Kotai” and “Kollippurai” along with Chera symbols.

Gupta Coins:
The Gupta empire issued well-crafted die-struck gold coins known as dinaras, primarily found in north India. These coins feature the reigning king in various poses on the obverse, including martial and musical representations, and religious symbols on the reverse, reflecting the kings’ religious affiliations. There was a decline in gold coin purity during Skandagupta’s reign. The Guptas also issued silver coins, though copper coins are rare.

Numismatic history of the early medieval period

The numismatic history of the early medieval period remains a topic of ongoing debate. Historians who characterize this era as dominated by a feudal system often describe a decline in coinage, along with a decrease in trade and urban centers, followed by a revival in the 11th century. However, this hypothesis can be challenged.

There was indeed a decline in the aesthetic quality of coins, the diversity of coin types, and their content. Many coins lacked names or titles, making it difficult to link them to specific rulers. Despite this, research by John S. Deyell suggests that the volume of coins in circulation did not significantly diminish.

Various base metal alloy coin series were issued during the early medieval period:

Rajputana and Gujarat: In the Ganga valley, billon coins circulated under the Gurjara-Pratihara kingdom, while different coin types were used in Rajputana and Gujarat.
Sindh: Copper coins were minted by Arab governors of Sindh from the mid-8th to the mid-9th centuries.
Kashmir: In Kashmir, copper coins were complemented by bills of exchange (hundikas) and the use of cowries.
Bengal: During the 6th–7th centuries, kings like Shashanka issued gold coins. There is no evidence of coinage from the Pala and Sena dynasties; references in their inscriptions may represent theoretical units of value rather than actual coins. However, Harikela silver coins were in circulation from the 7th to the 13th centuries, with local eastern series issued in various regions.
Western Deccan: Early medieval coin types in the western Deccan have been tentatively linked to the Chalukyas of Badami. While gold and silver coins from the Andhra region are attributed to the early eastern Chalukyas, there was a notable gap in coinage until the late 10th century, when the later Chalukyas revived gold and copper coins. The attribution of certain coins to the Chalukyas of Kalyana (8th–12th centuries) and the Kalachuri Rajputs is still uncertain. Coins from the Kadambas of Goa (11th–12th centuries) and some gold coins from the Shilaharas of the western Deccan (11th century) have been identified.
Far South: In the far south, coins featuring lion and bull motifs, some with inscriptions, are associated with the Pallavas. The tiger crest appears on Chola coins, and seals on Chola copper plate inscriptions show the tiger, fish (Pandya emblem), and bow (Chera emblem), indicating Chola political dominance over these dynasties. The presence of these emblems on many coins suggests Chola issues. Gold coins from Kavilayadavalli in Andhra Pradesh display motifs of the tiger, bow, and some indistinct marks, with inscriptions that likely reference mint towns and the Chola king Kulottunga I. The last phase of Chola rule is represented mainly by copper coins. Early medieval Pandyan coins, mostly copper, have been found extensively in Sri Lanka.

Cowries: Cowries were used as currency, though their purchasing power was relatively low. They are prevalent in post-Gupta times but may have been used earlier. In many regions of early medieval India, cowries were used alongside coins. For example, 25,000 cowries were found at Sohepur in Orissa with 27 Kalachuri coins, and 54 Pratihara coins were discovered at Bhaundri village in Lucknow alongside 9,834 cowries. Cowries likely served for small-scale transactions or in areas where small-denomination coins were scarce. Their market value fluctuated based on supply and demand.

Coins as a source of history

As coins circulate, they gradually lose weight due to wear and tear, a fact that numismatists use to arrange them chronologically.

Language and Script: The legends on coins offer insights into the history of languages and scripts.

Economic History: Coins provide valuable information on economic history, as they were used for donations, payments, and exchanges. Some coins, issued by merchant and goldsmith guilds with royal permission, highlight the growing importance of crafts and commerce.

Monetary History: Coins are closely linked to monetary history, including the production and circulation of coinage, the monetary values attached to them, and the frequency and volume of issues. This aspect of monetary history is crucial to understanding exchange and trade.

Trade: The widespread distribution of Kushana coins indicates the period’s thriving trade. The depiction of ships on certain Satavahana coins emphasizes the significance of maritime trade in the Deccan. Roman coins found across India shed light on Indo-Roman trade. The abundance of coins from the post-Maurya period, made of various metals including gold, indicates flourishing trade and commerce during this era, especially in the Gupta period. However, the scarcity of coins from the post-Gupta period suggests a decline in trade and commerce.

Importance of Guilds: The limited number of coin series issued by guilds highlights the importance of these institutions.

Economic Prosperity: Coins often reflect economic prosperity or financial challenges faced by ancient states. They facilitated large-scale transactions and trade. Historians often interpret coin debasement as a sign of financial crisis or economic decline, such as during the later Gupta period. However, in situations where the supply of precious metals was restricted, debasement might have been a response to increased demand for coins due to economic expansion.

Dating Archaeological Layers: Although early Indian coins rarely feature dates, exceptions like the Western Kshatrapa coins, which use the Shaka era, and some Gupta silver coins, which note regnal years, exist. Regardless of whether they are dated, coins found in archaeological excavations often help date the layers, as seen at the Sonkh site near Mathura, where excavated levels were divided into eight periods based on coin finds.

Political History: As carriers of royal messages, coins are a vital source of political history. The area of circulation of dynastic issues often helps estimate the extent and frontiers of empires. This has allowed historians to reconstruct the history of several ruling dynasties, such as the Indo-Greeks. However, caution is necessary, as coins made of precious metals often circulated beyond the issuing state’s borders and sometimes continued to circulate after the dynasty’s decline. Multiple overlapping currency systems could exist in one area, necessitating an understanding of the complex spheres of coin circulation.

Numismatic evidence is especially important for the political history of India between 200 BCE and 300 CE. Most Indo-Greek kings are known almost entirely through their coins. Coins also provide information on the Parthians, Shakas, Kshatrapas, Kushanas, and Satavahanas. Coins bearing the names of over 25 kings ending in ‘mitra’ have been found from east Punjab to Bihar’s borders. Coins found in various parts of north and central India, such as Vidisha, Eran, Pawaya, and Mathura, mention kings with names ending in ‘naga,’ about whom little is known from other sources.

Ancient Political Systems: Coins also provide insights into ancient political systems. The term “gana” on coins of the Yaudheyas and Malavas suggests their non-monarchical polity. City coins imply the importance and possible autonomy of certain city administrations.

Biographies: Numismatic evidence sometimes offers more than just the names of kings, providing biographical details. For example, the only specific detail known about Gupta king Chandragupta I is his marriage to a Lichchhavi princess, a fact revealed by coins commemorating the marriage. Coins have also helped prove that a Gupta king named Ramagupta ruled between Samudragupta and Chandragupta II. The performance of the ashvamedha sacrifice by Samudragupta and Kumaragupta I is recorded on coins. Samudragupta’s archer and battleaxe coin types emphasize his physical prowess, while the lyrist type, depicting him playing the vina, reveals a different aspect of his personality.

Religion: Coins also depict kings, gods, and religious symbols, offering insights into the art and religion of the time. The depiction of deities on coins reveals the personal religious preferences of kings, royal religious policies, and the history of religious cults. For instance, representations of Balarama and Krishna appear on 2nd century BCE coins of the Indo-Greek king Agathocles at Aï-Khanoum (in Afghanistan), indicating the popularity and importance of these cults in the region. The diverse figures from Indian, Iranian, and Graeco-Roman religious traditions on Kushana coins are often seen as reflecting their eclectic religious views. However, they can also be interpreted as evidence of the various religious cults in their empire and the wide range of religious symbols used by the Kushanas to legitimize their political power.

Conclusion

In conclusion, archaeological sources play a pivotal role in reconstructing ancient Indian history by providing tangible evidence that complements and often challenges textual accounts. These sources—ranging from artifacts and architectural remains to inscriptions and ancient settlements—offer invaluable insights into the social, economic, and cultural aspects of ancient Indian civilizations. However, the interpretation of archaeological data requires careful consideration of its context and the integration with literary sources to build a more nuanced and accurate historical narrative. Despite the challenges posed by the inherent differences between archaeological and textual evidence, the integration of these sources enriches our understanding of ancient India and enhances our ability to reconstruct its past comprehensively.