Global Commons

Global commons are natural resources and areas that are not owned by any one nation but are shared and accessible by all humanity. These include the high seas, the atmosphere, outer space, and Antarctica. Global commons are considered part of the collective heritage of humanity and require cooperative management to ensure their sustainable use and protection.

The Term “Global Commons”

‘Global Commons’ is an aspect of a more generic concept of ‘Commons’ in the particular context of resources. Therefore, to understand the concept of global
commons, it is first necessary to understand the concept of commons. Let us now see what the term ‘Commons’ means:

1. Commons

Susan J. Buck (1998) in her book “The Global Commons: An Introduction” has explained commons in the context of resources, through two different approaches:
a) Two attributes of resources: exclusion and subtractability; and b) Concepts of resources, resource domains, and property rights.

Two Attributes of Resources: Exclusion and Subtractability

Exclusion is the possibility of excluding others from using any resource. For example, it is quite easy to exclude people from using a personal swimming pool, but it is difficult to exclude people from the common pond in the village or a lake in the city. Subtractability is the extent to which use of the resource by one diminishes the amount left for the others. For example, the food in your lunch-box on a particular day is highly subtractable. It means if someone else grabs that, you will not be able to eat it.

Common pool resources are those which are high in subtractability, but low in exclusion. For example, resources found in the village forest are common pool resources. Every villager is entitled to collect fruits (or even other resources) to a limited amount, therefore exclusion is low. But once some fruits are collected by one villager, those fruits are no longer available for other villagers, i.e., those are highly subtractable.Therefore, in this case, village forest is the ‘Commons’.

Resources, Resource Domains, Property Rights

Resource is something which is used to meet the needs of any living being. Natural resources are those directly extracted from the nature for use, e.g., air, water, wood, natural gas and oil, iron, coal and others. Resources are located in fixed spatial dimensions, which is known as resource domains, e.g., fish is found in the ocean resource domain. ‘Commons’ are simply the resource domains where common pool resources are found. ‘Commons’ can be small, e.g., the village pond for fishing, or substantially large like the oceans or the solar system.

2. Global Commons

Common pool resources are also known as common property resources. The term property, in case of resources, is a bundle of rights, such as rights of access, exclusion, extraction, or sale of the captured resource.

Property rights may be held by individuals, groups of individuals such as communities, or even nations.The very large commons that do not fall within the jurisdiction of any one country are known as international commons or global commons. However, there is a slight difference between international commons and global commons. International commons are resource domains shared by more than one nation, such as the Mediterranean Sea (shared by different countries such as Spain, France, Italy, Greece, Turkey, Syria, Israel, Egypt, Malta and many others). Global commons, on the other hand, are resource domains to which all nations have legal access, such as the outer space. Therefore, according to Buck (Op.cit.), the distinction between the two is important, especially because international commons are exclusionary (for some countries),while global commons are not. Traditionally, global commons have been defined as parts of the planet, which fall outside the national jurisdiction of any country and to which all nations have access.

Historically, common pool resources have been extracted by governments and individuals as rapidly as possible. Only four global commons have remained exceptions to this trend, mainly because of difficulty in accessing them. Moreover, value of the resources they contain has not been enough to justify the effort of acquiring them. These are the following:

• High seas/ the oceans
• Antarctica
• The atmosphere
• The space

However, in the recent years, there has been a tremendous advancement of science and technology, and demand for resources have increased manifold. In this changing context, concern for restoring these global commons is becoming increasingly important. Mercator Research Institute on Global Commons and Climate Change, Berlin, defines global commons as ‘natural resources, which require global cooperation for their sustainable use, such as the atmosphere, land and forests’. In fact, some scholars define global commons much more broadly, including education, science, information, and peace. However, international law identifies only the above mentioned four types of commons as global commons (UN, 2013).

Significance of “Global Commons”

The concept of global commons holds immense significance in international relations, environmental conservation, and sustainable development. Here’s a detailed look at its importance:

1. Environmental Sustainability

• Biodiversity Preservation: Global commons like the high seas and Antarctica are home to unique ecosystems and species. Protecting these areas ensures the survival of biodiversity, which is vital for ecological balance and human well-being.
• Climate Regulation: The atmosphere and oceans play critical roles in regulating Earth’s climate. Ensuring their health is crucial for mitigating climate change, which poses a global threat.

2. Shared Resources and Equitable Access

• Resource Availability: Global commons provide essential resources like fish, clean air, and freshwater, which are critical for the survival and development of all nations. Sustainable management ensures these resources remain available for future generations.
• Equitable Access: The idea of global commons promotes the notion that resources beyond national jurisdictions should be accessible to all countries, especially developing nations that may not have the means to exploit these resources on their own.

3. International Cooperation

• Global Governance: Managing global commons requires cooperation among nations, fostering international dialogue, treaties, and agreements. This collaboration is essential for addressing issues that transcend national borders, such as pollution and overfishing.
• Peaceful Use: Treaties like the Antarctic Treaty System and the Outer Space Treaty emphasize the peaceful use of these global commons, preventing militarization and promoting scientific research and collaboration.

4. Economic Importance

• Sustainable Economic Activities: Many industries rely on resources from the global commons, such as fishing, shipping, and satellite communications. Sustainable management ensures that these economic activities can continue without depleting or damaging the resources.
• Innovation and Research: Global commons provide opportunities for scientific research and technological innovation, particularly in fields like climate science, marine biology, and space exploration.

5. Moral and Ethical Considerations

• Intergenerational Responsibility: The concept of global commons emphasizes the moral responsibility to manage these resources wisely so that they remain available for future generations.
• Global Justice: The equitable management of global commons is a matter of global justice, ensuring that all nations, regardless of their wealth or power, have fair access to shared resources.

6. Crisis Management and Resilience

• Global Challenges: Issues like climate change, ocean acidification, and space debris require collective action. The global commons serve as a platform for addressing these challenges, fostering resilience against global crises.
• Disaster Response: International cooperation in managing global commons also extends to disaster response, such as coordinating efforts to clean up oil spills or managing the impacts of extreme weather events.

7. Cultural and Scientific Significance

• Knowledge Sharing: Global commons, such as the high seas and outer space, are frontiers of human knowledge and exploration. They offer vast opportunities for scientific discovery and the sharing of knowledge across borders.
• Cultural Heritage: The global commons, including areas like the deep ocean and Antarctica, are part of humanity’s shared heritage. Protecting these areas is essential for preserving their cultural and historical significance.

Data Bank

One-third of the global population depends on these commons for their survival, with approximately 65% of the world’s land area categorized under various types of commons. These regions are vital for carbon storage, containing at least 293,061 million metric tonnes of carbon in the collective forestlands of indigenous peoples and local communities. Furthermore, the global economic value of pollination provided by commons is estimated at $224 billion each year. Commons also play a significant role in water regulation, soil fertility, and climate resilience.

In India, the area of common land varies between 48.69 million and 84.2 million hectares, accounting for 15-25% of the country’s total geographical area. These common-pool resources contribute approximately $5 billion annually to the incomes of impoverished households in India. Additionally, 77% of India’s livestock relies on grazing-based or extensive systems supported by commons, which meet 53% of the nation’s milk and 74% of its meat needs. Therefore, the sustainable management of these commons is crucial for preserving biodiversity, supporting livelihoods, and addressing climate change.

Challenges in Protecting Global Commons

Protecting global commons faces several significant challenges:

1. The Tragedy of the Commons:

• Introduced by biologist Garrett Hardin in 1968, this concept describes how individuals, acting in their own self-interest, can deplete or damage shared resources, ultimately harming everyone’s long-term interests.
• For example, data from India’s National Sample Survey Office reveals a quinquennial decline of 1.9% in common land areas. However, more detailed studies suggest a much steeper decline of 31-55% over the past 50 years.
• This reduction has compromised key ecological drivers such as soil, moisture, nutrients, biomass, and biodiversity, exacerbating crises related to food, fodder, and water.

2. Jurisdictional Issues:

• Governing global commons is complicated by jurisdictional challenges, as these areas lie beyond the control of any single nation, making it difficult to enforce international laws.
• Issues such as the spread of zoonotic diseases like COVID-19, greenhouse gas emissions, biodiversity loss, overfishing, and the accumulation of plastic waste further complicate the management of global commons.
• Ensuring that international laws are universally respected and enforced is challenging, given the varying capacities of nations to address these problems effectively.
• Moreover, achieving coordination and cooperation among nations is crucial but remains an ongoing challenge, as consensus and collective action on a global scale are difficult to achieve.

3. Environmental Degradation:

• Environmental degradation poses a critical threat to the health of global commons, with pollution, overfishing, and climate change causing significant ecological damage.
• For instance, pollution from industrial activities and agriculture contaminates water bodies and degrades air quality, negatively impacting marine and terrestrial ecosystems.
• Overfishing depletes fish stocks and disrupts marine food webs, endangering biodiversity and undermining the sustainability of fisheries. According to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), mismanagement has led to the irreversible loss of 60% of biodiversity resources.
• Climate change worsens these issues by altering temperature and precipitation patterns, leading to habitat loss, coral bleaching, and more frequent extreme weather events, further degrading global commons.

4. Economic Pressures:

• Economic pressures often drive nations and corporations to exploit these resources unsustainably, prioritizing short-term profits over long-term environmental sustainability.
• For example, logging companies may clear-cut forests for timber without implementing adequate reforestation measures, resulting in deforestation and biodiversity loss.
• Similarly, mining operations, including companies like Coal India, provide significant employment and contribute to poverty reduction and various development and CSR initiatives. However, these activities may extract minerals without proper environmental safeguards, leading to habitat destruction, soil erosion, and water and air pollution.
• These economic incentives can create a cycle of resource depletion and environmental degradation, compromising the health and resilience of global commons.

Concepts Regarding “Global Commons”

“The Tragedy of the Commons” and “The Common Heritage of Mankind” are two influential concepts that shape legal discussions on managing global commons (Ranganathan, 2016). While both concepts emphasize the importance of sharing and preserving common resources, they differ in their approaches. Let’s explore these concepts and the debates surrounding them:

Tragedy of the Commons (ToC)

Biologist Garrett Hardin (1968) proposed that human beings, driven by self-interest, tend to overexploit shared resources, leading to their depletion. He argued that when resources are accessible to all without regulation, individuals prioritize short-term gains over long-term sustainability. Hardin illustrated this with the example of common pastures, where herders increased their cattle grazing, leading to the pasture’s destruction. He also highlighted pollution as a case where individuals perceive the cost of their emissions as negligible compared to the collective harm, leading to widespread environmental degradation.

To address this issue, Hardin suggested that commons should be enclosed with restricted access. He proposed two potential solutions: privatizing resources, thereby incentivizing owners to consider long-term impacts, or implementing top-down government regulations to limit resource use. Access could be determined by various methods, such as first-come, first-served, auctions, lotteries, or wealth. Despite acknowledging the limitations of these approaches, Hardin maintained that restricting access to commons is necessary to prevent their destruction.

Common Heritage of Mankind (CHM)

The concept of “Common Heritage of Mankind,” introduced by diplomat Arvid Pardo (1967), posits that natural resources belong to all humanity, including future generations. This perspective emphasizes both rights and responsibilities in the use of these resources. Pardo was particularly concerned with the potential enclosure of international commons, such as the seabed, by technologically advanced nations. He feared that wealthy countries, equipped for oceanographic research, could exploit the seabed’s resources, leaving poorer nations, which also have rights to these resources, at a disadvantage.

To prevent such outcomes, Pardo proposed the establishment of a “treaty regime” by the United Nations General Assembly. This regime would ensure the peaceful and equitable exploitation of the seabed, adhering to the principle that it is the common heritage of mankind and should be used in the interests of all, particularly developing nations.

Debates Around ToC and CHM

While both concepts aim to preserve common resources, they differ notably in their implications for developed and developing countries. ToC has been criticized for its perceived bias towards developed nations. Hardin’s suggestion of enclosing and restricting access to commons, based on the example of English commons, has been challenged. Ranganathan (2016) argues that this example is flawed, as English commons were effectively managed by their commoners for long periods. Empirical research has provided numerous examples of successful commons management worldwide, including by tribal communities in India who efficiently manage their forests.

Critics also argue that Hardin’s approach to restricted access exacerbates existing global inequalities. Gupta (2019) contends that wealthy nations and individuals would manipulate access to commons, leaving the poor at a disadvantage. This could lead to a new form of tragedy: unequal access to and benefits from common resources.

Beyond access, the degradation of global commons is linked to social justice. Developed countries, having historically followed energy-intensive growth paths, have contributed significantly to greenhouse gas emissions and climate change. These nations also possess the resources to mitigate the negative impacts of climate change, unlike developing countries, particularly the least developed ones, which are highly vulnerable to these effects despite contributing minimally to the problem (Paavola, 2012).

In response to these criticisms, developing nations have favored the Common Heritage approach to global commons. The concept of the “common concern of mankind” was adopted in 1992 as a complement to, though not a replacement for, the “common heritage” principle in the preamble of the UNFCCC (Taylor, 2017). Advocates of global governance under the UN framework argue that preserving global commons for future generations is essential to achieving sustainable development goals. The question remains: What would an ideal global governance model for addressing climate change look like? This will be explored in the next section.

Climate Change: A Global Problems of Commons

Climate change is currently one of the most significant environmental threats facing the world. The primary cause of this danger is the excessive emission of greenhouse gases by various countries. According to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC, 1992), “climate change refers to a change in climate that is directly or indirectly attributed to human activities that alter the global atmosphere’s composition and is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods.” Simply put, climate change refers to a long-term trend (over 30 years) in weather patterns.

Climate change is often described as a global commons problem for several reasons. The atmospheric capacity to absorb greenhouse gases can be likened to a common-pool resource, similar to a fishery. While fisheries are more easily understood as commons (providing fish as the resource), the atmosphere functions as a global common in a slightly different way. The resource found in the atmosphere is clean air, which, though not extracted, becomes contaminated when pollutants are added.

It is challenging, if not impossible, to exclude any individual or nation from accessing the atmospheric or clean air absorptive capacity. The atmosphere, as a sink service, is subtractable; one unit of use by one party diminishes the capacity available to others. When carbon emissions are considered in this light, one country’s emissions reduce the remaining absorptive capacity for other countries.

Currently, the excessive emission of greenhouse gases by various countries has overwhelmed the natural sink capacity of the atmosphere, leading to climate change. The international community recognizes the urgent need to conserve global commons, such as the atmosphere, but there is disagreement over how to regulate these efforts.

Future Perspectives and Challenges

Managing shared resources requires a careful balance between private and public interests. Effective coordination at various levels is essential, such as empowering local irrigation communities to oversee infrastructure and adapt practices to evolving conditions.

To manage both global and local commons successfully, it is crucial to support local self-governance while implementing safeguards to prevent exploitation and mitigate risks. Rural and urban communities should be entrusted with the management of their shared resources, while cities and nations must address associated risks.

Two approaches can improve resource management: reinforcing governance principles of ‘Commons’ approaches and employing creative destruction to innovate resource management practices.

Creative destruction, a concept introduced by economist Joseph Schumpeter, refers to the continuous process of innovation where outdated production methods are replaced by newer, more efficient ones. This concept is fundamental to capitalism, driving progress and adaptation.

The future of global commons protection depends on enhanced international cooperation, adherence to laws, integration of sustainability into policies, and moving beyond a strictly ‘developmentalist view’ in both developed and developing countries. This involves embracing the idea of the ‘common heritage of mankind,’ as articulated by diplomat Arvid Pardo in 1967. This principle, recognized in international law, asserts that natural resources are not solely for the present generation but are intended to be shared with future generations.

Reference

1. Concept of Global Commons and Climate Change
2. Global Commons: Understanding Exploitation and Conservation